People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

Probably, many high school principals view themselves as exceptions-the ones who got to the top despite not having top test scores or grades. Maybe they think they succeeded by working very hard; maybe they think they were lucky. And maybe they were. In fact, though, these principals are closer to the rule than to the exception. Very few people who make it to the top of their fields are the same ones who were the top performers in school. Should we really be surprised?

IQ Counts, But What Really Counts Is Successful Intelligence

Metaphor can be studied in many different ways and at many different levels, any one of which may lead to valid insights into the nature of metaphoric generation, comprehension, and appreciation. The insights of any one approach to metaphor are perhaps most convincingly validated when they converge with the insights of a distinctly different approach, leading the student of metaphor to much the same conclusions without regard to the particular method from which the conclusions derived. In his lucid and enlightening analysis of generative metaphor, Schon has reached conclusions strikingly similar in many ways to those we have reached in our analyses of metaphor and induction. As anyone might expect, where two independent research programs are involved, there are a number of theoretical issues that are addressed by one of the research programs but not by the other. However, in the central core of overlapping issues, there is clear convergence in the conclusions we have independently drawn. In this chapter we should like to point out and discuss the sources of convergence. What follows is divided into three sections. In order to relate our world to Schon's, it is necessary in the first section to say something about the motivation, approach, theory, and methods that underlie the work in our laboratory on metaphor and induction. These underpinnings of our research differ in many respects from Schon's. Then, it is possible in the second section to draw parallels between our conclusions and those of Schon regarding metaphor, induction, and social policy.

Metaphor, Induction, and Social Policy: The Convergence of Macroscopic and Microscopic Views.

Understanding and Combating Hate.

This paper presents a pentagonal implicit theory of giftedness and a set of data testing the theory. The exposition is divided into five parts. First, I discuss what an implicit theory is and why such theories are important. Second, I describe the pentagonal theory, specifying five conditions claimed to be individually necessary and jointly sufficient for a person to be labelled as gifted. These conditions not only help us understand why some people are labelled as 'gifted', but also why some others are not. Third, I consider the relation of the pentagonal theory to explicit theories of giftedness. Fourth, I present data supporting the theory. Finally, I discuss some implications of the pentagonal theory for gifted education.

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

IQ Counts, But What Really Counts Is Successful Intelligence

Metaphor, Induction, and Social Policy: The Convergence of Macroscopic and Microscopic Views.

Understanding and Combating Hate.

The Concept of ‘Giftedness’: A Pentagonal Implicit Theory

Creativity for the new millennium.