People in different cultures have strikingly different construals of the self, of others, and of the interdependence of the 2. These construals can influence, and in many cases determine, the very nature of individual experience, including cognition, emotion, and motivation. Many Asian cultures have distinct conceptions of individuality that insist on the fundamental relatedness of individuals to each other. The emphasis is on attending to others, fitting in, and harmonious interdependence with them. American culture neither assumes nor values such an overt connectedness among individuals. In contrast, individuals seek to maintain their independence from others by attending to the self and by discovering and expressing their unique inner attributes. As proposed herein, these construals are even more powerful than previously imagined. Theories of the self from both psychology and anthropology are integrated to define in detail the difference between a construal of the self as independent and a construal of the self as interdependent. Each of these divergent construals should have a set of specific consequences for cognition, emotion, and motivation; these consequences are proposed and relevant empirical literature is reviewed. Focusing on differences in self-construals enables apparently inconsistent empirical findings to be reconciled, and raises questions about what have been thought to be culture-free aspects of cognition, emotion, and motivation.

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Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation.

A hypothesized need to form and maintain strong, stable interpersonal relationships is evaluated in light of the empirical literature. The need is for frequent, nonaversive interactions within an ongoing relational bond. Consistent with the belongingness hypothesis, people form social attachments readily under most conditions and resist the dissolution of existing bonds. Belongingness appears to have multiple and strong effects on emotional patterns and on cognitive processes. Lack of attachments is linked to a variety of ill effects on health, adjustment, and well-being. Other evidence, such as that concerning satiation, substitution, and behavioral consequences, is likewise consistent with the hypothesized motivation. Several seeming counterexamples turned out not to disconfirm the hypothesis. Existing evidence supports the hypothesis that the need to belong is a powerful, fundamental, and extremely pervasive motivation.

The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.

Experience and Educationis the best concise statement on education ever published by John Dewey, the man acknowledged to be the pre-eminent educational theorist of the twentieth century. Written more than two decades after Democracy and Education(Dewey's most comprehensive statement of his position in educational philosophy), this book demonstrates how Dewey reformulated his ideas as a result of his intervening experience with the progressive schools and in the light of the criticisms his theories had received. Analysing both "traditional" and "progressive" education, Dr. Dewey here insists that neither the old nor the new education is adequate and that each is miseducative because neither of them applies the principles of a carefully developed philosophy of experience. Many pages of this volume illustrate Dr. Dewey's ideas for a philosophy of experience and its relation to education. He particularly urges that all teachers and educators looking for a new movement in education should think in terms of the deeped and larger issues of education rather than in terms of some divisive "ism" about education, even such an "ism" as "progressivism." His philosophy, here expressed in its most essential, most readable form, predicates an American educational system that respects all sources of experience, on that offers a true learning situation that is both historical and social, both orderly and dynamic.

经验与教育 = Experience and education

According to W. Edwards Deming, American companies require nothing less than a transformation of management style and of governmental relations with industry. In Out of the Crisis, originally published in 1982, Deming offers a theory of management based on his famous 14 Points for Management. Management's failure to plan for the future, he claims, brings about loss of market, which brings about loss of jobs. Management must be judged not only by the quarterly dividend, but by innovative plans to stay in business, protect investment, ensure future dividends, and provide more jobs through improved product and service. In simple, direct language, he explains the principles of management transformation and how to apply them.

Out of the Crisis

Past work has documented and described major patterns of adaptive and maladaptive behavior: the mastery-oriented and the helpless patterns. In this article, we present a research-based model that accounts for these patterns in terms of underlying psychological processes. The model specifies how individuals' implicit theories orient them toward particular goals and how these goals set up the different patterns. Indeed, we show how each feature (cognitive, affective, and behavioral) of the adaptive and maladaptive patterns can be seen to follow directly from different goals. We then examine the generality of the model and use it to illuminate phenomena in a wide variety of domains. Finally, we place the model in its broadest context and examine its implications for our understanding of motivational and personality processes. The task for investigators of motivation and personality is to identify major patterns of behavior and link them to underlying psychological processes. In this article we (a) describe a research-based model that accounts for major patterns of behavior, (b) examine the generality of this model—its utility for understanding domains beyond the ones in which it was originally developed, and (c) explore the broader implications of the model for motivational and personality processes.

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A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality

Practical Intelligence for Success in School.

Cognitive conceptions of expertise

The drive to excel has long challenged humans to push their bodies, minds, and technologies in the determined pursuit of success. People have demonstrated their devotion to excellence through the years of effort and practice they have been willing to invest in accomplishing their goals (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993). For example, Simon and Chase (1973) observed that no one had ever attained the rank of Grandmaster in chess without at least a decade of intense preparation. This observation has since been extended to many domains, including music, sports, and academia (Bloom, 1985; Ericsson et al., 1993; Ericsson, Chapter 38). Despite folk tales about extraordinary performances by very young individuals, it is clear that the most eminent individuals in any field do not exhibit expert levels of performance prior to an extended period of preparation. Exploration of the nature of expertise and how it develops has interested scholars, professionals, and laypeople alike, and has involved a wide range of theoretical and methodological approaches. One of the enduring debates over many years of study is whether the development of expertise is largely attributable to unusual characteristics of individuals, often thought of in terms of largely inherited talents, or of their learning histories (see Horn & Masunaga, Chapter 34).

The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance: Tacit Knowledge, Practical Intelligence, and Expertise

Part I. The Nature-Nurture Question: New Advances in Behavior-Genetic Research on Intelligence: 1. Behavior genetics and socialization theories of intelligence: truce and reconciliation S. Scarr 2. The puzzle of nongenetic variance A. R. Jensen 3. Identifying genes for cognitive abilities and disabilities R. Plomin 4. Heredity, environment, and IQ in the Texas Adoption Project J. C. Loehlin et al. 5. IQ similarity in twins reared apart: findings and responses to critics T. J. Bouchard Part II. Novel Theoretical Perspectives on the Genes and Culture Controversy: 6. The invalid separation of effects of nature and nurture: lessons from animal experimentation D. Wahlsten and G. Gottlieb 7. Between nature and nurture: the role of human agency in the epigenesis of intelligence T. R. Bidell and K. W. Fischer 8. A third perspective: the symbol systems approach H. Gardner and T. Hatch 9. A cultural psychology perspective on intelligence J. G. Miller 10. A bio-ecological model of intellectual development: moving beyond h2 S. J. Ceci et al. 11. An interactionist perspective on the genesis of intelligence E. W. Gordon and M. P. Lemons Part III. Specific Issues in the Nature-Nurture Controversy: 12. Educating intelligence: infusing the Triarchic theory into school instruction R. J. Sternberg 13. Raising IQ level by vitamin and mineral supplementation H. J. Eysenck and S. J. Schoenthaler 14. The resolution of the nature-nurture controversy by Russian psychology: culturally biased or culturally Specific? E. L. Grigorenko and T. V. Korilova 15. The emerging horizontal dimension of practical intelligence: polycontextuality and boundary crossing in complex work activities Y. Engestrom et al. 16. Cognitive development from infancy to middle childhood Stacey S. Cherney et al. 17. Intelligence, language, nature, and nurture in young twins J. S. Reznick 18. Sources of individual differences in infant social cognition: cognitive and affective aspects of self and other S. Pipp et al. Part IV. Integration and Conclusions: 19. Conclusions E. Hunt 20. Unresolved questions and future directions in behavior genetics studies of intelligence I. Waldman.

Robert J. Sternberg

Papers

Practical Intelligence for Success in School.

Cognitive conceptions of expertise

The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance: Tacit Knowledge, Practical Intelligence, and Expertise

Intelligence, heredity, and environment

Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence as predictors of self-reported adaptive functioning: A case study in Russia.