Showing papers by "Bowling Green State University published in 1996"

Services Marketing: Integrating Customer Focus Across the Firm

Abstract: The Second European Edition of Services Marketing: Integrating Customer Focus Across the Firm by Wilson, Zeithaml, Bitner and Gremler uniquely focuses on the development of customer relationships through quality service. Reflecting the increasing importance of the service economy, Services Marketing is the only text that put the customer's experience of services at the centre of its approach. The core theories, concepts and frameworks are retained, and specifically the gaps model, a popular feature of the book. The text moves from the foundations of services marketing before introducing the gaps model and demonstrating its application to services marketing. In the second edition, the book takes on more European and International contexts to reflect the needs of courses, lecturers and students. The second edition builds on the wealth of European and International examples, cases, and research in the first edition, offering more integration of European content. It has also be fully updated with the latest research to ensure that it continues to be seen as the text covering the very latest services marketing thinking. In addition, the cases section has been thoroughly examined and revised to offer a range of new case studies with a European and global focus. The online resources have also been fully revised and updated providing an excellent package of support for lecturers and students.

Estimating fitness : a comparison of body condition indices

Abstract: Behavioral ecologists might often benefit by the ability to directly measure an animal's body condition as an estimate of foraging success, and ultimately fitness. Here we compare the reliability and effectiveness of three indices of body condition that have been heavily used in the morphometrics literature. We examined the ratio index (body mass/body size), the slope-adjusted ratio index (based on regression slopes generated from a reference population), and the residual index (the residuals of a regression of body mass on body size). We present the results of tests performed in the field and laboratory on two ecologically and evolutionarily divergent spider species : the vagrant wolf spider Pardosa milvina (Araneae, Lycosidae), and the colonial orb-weaver Metepeira incrassata (Araneae, Araneidae). The ratio index correlated with body size, which weakened the strength of conclusions that could be drawn. The slope-adjusted ratio index requires an independent and large data set with which to generate the expected values, and was likewise sensitive to body size. The residual index, with appropriate transformations to achieve homoscedasticity, was the most reliable index because it did not vary with body size, and we recommend its general use in behavioral studies that require a condition estimate.

Operationalization of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies

Abstract: For the past 20 years, the Association for Multicultural Counseling and Development (AMCD) has provided leadership for the American counseling profession in major sociocultural and sociopolitical domains. Through our vision of the centrality of culture and multiculturalism to the counseling profession, we have created new directions and paradigms for change. One of our major contributions has been the development of the Multicultural Counseling Competencies (Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992).

Facial expressions of emotion influence interpersonal trait inferences

Abstract: Theorists have argued that facial expressions of emotion serve the interpersonal function of allowing one animal to predict another's behavior. Humans may extend these predictions into the indefinite future, as in the case of trait inference. The hypothesis that facial expressions of emotion (e.g., anger, disgust, fear, happiness, and sadness) affect subjects' interpersonal trait inferences (e.g., dominance and affiliation) was tested in two experiments. Subjects rated the dispositional affiliation and dominance of target faces with either static or apparently moving expressions. They inferred high dominance and affiliation from happy expressions, high dominance and low affiliation from angry and disgusted expressions, and low dominance from fearful and sad expressions. The findings suggest that facial expressions of emotion convey not only a target's internal state, but also differentially convey interpersonal information, which could potentially seed trait inference.

Teacher beliefs and intentions regarding the implementation of science education reform strands

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine the factors influencing teachers' intentions to implement the four strands (inquiry, knowledge, conditions, and applications) of the State of Ohio's (U.S.) Competency Based Science Model. Ajzen's Theory of Planned Behavior was used to examine the influence of three primary constructs (attitude toward the behavior, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control) on teachers' intentions to engage in the targeted behaviors. The teachers' salient beliefs for each of the primary constructs were further examined to determine their degree of contribution. Differences between various teacher populations for both intent and the three primary constructs were also investigated. The data were obtained using survey research (N = 800 Ohio teachers, randomly selected and stratified by grade level and state region). Backward solution multiple regression and analysis of variance techniques were used for statistical analyses. Results indicated that the attitude toward the behavior construct held the greatest influence of Ohio teachers' intent to implement all four strands of the science model; several salient beliefs for each of the three constructs significantly contribute to the constructs; and significant differences exist between various teacher populations for both intent and the three constructs. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Attitudes and effectiveness: examining relations at an organizational level

Abstract: Recent evidence has suggested that attitudes-organizational effectiveness relations may exist. Relations between employee attitudes, organizational unit performance, customer satisfaction, and turnover were examined at the branch level for a large automobile finance company. Using data from 142 branches in 2 consecutive years, several significant relations between attitude factors and performance were observed. In addition, causal analyses conducted at the branch level suggested that customer satisfaction led to employee attitudes, rather than the opposite. Additional analyses to explain this result suggested that economic conditions and related factors might be the causal mechanism at the aggregated level. Other potential interpretations of these findings and caveats about generalizing organizational-level findings to the individual level are discussed.

Investment in Testes and the Cost of Making Long Sperm in Drosophila

Abstract: Relationships among body mass, testis mass, sperm length, and the number of sperm produced were examined among 11 Drosophila species, after controlling for phylogenetic ef- fects. This is the first study to examine many of these relationships comparatively in an inverte- brate taxon; patterns observed among these variables were fundamentally different from those consistently reported in studies of vertebrates. In regression analyses, testis mass increased with body mass with an exponent greater than one, which indicates that males of larger-bodied Drosophila species make a proportionately greater energetic investment in testes than do males of smaller-bodied species. The positive allometry of testis mass is hypothesized to be a combined consequence of the unusual positive relationship between body mass and sperm length and the positive relationship between sperm length and testis mass. Interspecific variation in testis mass was found to be a function of variation in sperm length rather than variation in the number of sperm produced. Significant trade-offs were identified between sperm length and the number of sperm produced and transferred per copulation. Results are discussed in terms of the costs of producing longer sperm, the correlated evolution of sperm length and body size, the relation- ship between breeding system and sperm production patterns, and the nature of differences between vertebrates and invertebrates in sperm production and the size of testes.

The effect of acceleration techniques on product development time

Abstract: Bringing new products to the marketplace faster has become a strategic imperative in many markets, especially high technology industries. Much attention has focused on techniques purported to bring products to the market more quickly, but little empirical research has been conducted to validate these techniques. This study tests the relationship between the popular time to market acceleration techniques and product development time in a sample of electronics companies. Our findings suggest that only four of the 12 techniques we studied are significantly related with development time performance as proposed. We found that fast developers had teams that were cross functional, dedicated, included fast time to market as a development goal, and overlapped development activities more so than slow developers. Our regression results were very significant, and accounted for 32% of the variance in development time performance. We concluded, however, given many of techniques were not supported that successful fast cycle development can not be accomplished by using a sporadic combination of factors. Furthermore, we feel additional research is needed to explore the interaction and mediating effects of these techniques upon each other, as well as identify other intermediate processes and external conditions that may also affect product development effectiveness.

Parental Cohabitation and Children's Economic Well-Being

Abstract: The rise in children's experience in single-parent families is well documented. However, it remains unknown whether their unmarried parents are living alone or coresiding with unmarried partners. Perhaps more importantly, it is unknown how the economic contributions of parent's cohabiting partners influence the economic well-being of children. Using data from the recently released 1990 decennial census PUMS, we provide national estimates of the percentage and socioeconomic characteristics of U.S. children living in cohabitingcouple families. Our results reveal that 2.2 million children (3.5%) reside in cohabiting-couple families and that racial differences are substantial. Roughly I in 7 children in unmarried-parent families also live with their parent's unmarried partner. Although these children have two potential caretakers and economic providers, our results indicate that parental resources fall short of their counterparts in married-couple families. A cohabiting partner's economic contribution results in a 29% reduction in the proportion of children in cohabiting-couple families living in poverty, but still they fare poorly in comparison with children in married-couple families. Key Words: children's well-being, cohabitation, family structure, poverty. The transformation of the American family, fueled by continuing high rates of divorce and unmarried childbearing, is inextricably linked to the changing living arrangements and economic status of children (Bianchi, 1990; Duncan & Rodgers, 1991; Eggebeen & Lichter, 1991; Hernandez, 1993). The rise in single-parent families has adversely affected the economic well-being of American children (Eggebeen & Lichter, 1991). Yet previous studies have failed to explicitly consider parental cohabitation in evaluating the living arrangements and economic well-being of children in single-parent families. Children are increasingly likely to be born into a cohabiting couple and raised by a parent or by parents who are cohabiting (Bumpass & Raley, 1995; Bumpass & Sweet, 1989). It appears that cohabitation has become an important family form to consider in understanding children's economic well-being. In this article we evaluate how estimates of children's living arrangements (e.g., percentage living in single-mother families) and economic well-being (e.g., poverty) are altered if cohabiting couples are viewed both conceptually and analytically as two-parent families. Our research addresses three specific questions with data from the recently released 5% Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) of the 1990 decennial census. First, we provide benchmark estimates of the number and proportion of children living in married-couple, cohabiting-couple, and single-parent families for specific racial and ethnic groups (i.e., Blacks, nonLatino Whites, Asians, Mexican Americans, and Puerto Ricans). Second, we contrast the socioeconomic circumstances (e.g., parent's education, income, or employment status) of children living in cohabiting unions with those living in families headed by married couples or single mothers. Are the socioeconomic characteristics of the parents of children living in cohabiting families akin to those of their counterparts in families headed by married couples or single parents? Third, we compare rates of poverty (as officially measured) with new estimates that treat children in cohabiting unions similarly to children in married-couple families. We ask how poverty rates are affected if we assume that children benefit from the income of the partner of their unmarried parent. CHILDREN'S LIVING ARRANGEMENTS AND POVERTY The complexity of children's family life is often ignored; most researchers simply distinguish between children living in two-parent and singleparent families. It is generally accepted that more refined definitions of two-parent families that differentiate between two-biological parent families and stepparent families are important (e. …

Dissociations between appetitive and consummatory responses by pharmacological manipulations of reward-relevant brain regions.

Abstract: Appetitive behaviors of rats were monitored in a runway situation following central infusions of neuroactive substances into brain areas implicated in electrical self-stimulation. Microinjections of the dopamine antagonist cis-flupentixol or the cholinergic antagonist atropine into the nucleus accumbens (Acb) severely reduced the approach speed and anticipatory shuttlebox activity while leaving the consumption of the 20% sucrose reward intact. Microinjections of GABA into the ventral tegmental area (VTA), pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg), and oral pontine reticular nucleus (PnO) also severely disrupted approach without decreasing consumption. The highest doses of atropine into the VTA, PPTg, and PnO disrupted both consummatory and approach responses equally. The results indicate that modulation of various neurochemistries along the trajectory of the self-stimulation system has stronger effects on appetitive approach than consummatory motivation. The implications for understanding appetitive-approach motivation in the brain are discussed.

The Meaning of Older Adults' Health Appraisals: Congruence with Health Status and Determinant of Mortality

Abstract: This study explored open-ended responses regarding attributions underlying health appraisals made by older adults, resulting in five categories (physical health, attitudinal'behavioral, externally focused, health transcendence, nonreflective). The older the respondents, the less likely they were to focus on physical aspects of their health. Health optimists were the most likely to make attitudinal/behavioral or health transcendent attributions, while poor-health realists were most likely to mention physical health aspects and least likely to make attitudinal or behavioral attributions. While poor-health realists were at the highest risk of dying within a three-year period, health optimists were significantly less likely to die than poor-health realists, in spite of sharing similar health status. Respondents who were unable to identify underlying attributions were significantly more likely to die than were those identifying any other attribution. In conclusion, health attributions provide unique insight into the complex relationship between older adults' health appraisals, health status, and mortality.

Alkyl Ether Analogs of Chlorophyll‐a Derivatives: Part 1. Synthesis, Photophysical Properties and Photodynamic Efficacy

Abstract: The synthesis, preliminary in vivo biological activity, singlet oxygen and fluorescence yields of a series of alkyl ether derivatives of chlorophyll-alpha analogs are described. For short-chain carbon ethers (1-7 carbon units), it was observed that the biological activity increased by increasing the length of the carbon chain, being maximum in compounds with n-hexyl and n-heptyl chains. Related sensitizers prepared by reacting 2-(1-bromoethyl)-2-devinylpyropheophorbide-alpha with (sec)alcohols were found to be less effective. Under similar treatment conditions, photosensitizers containing cis- and trans- 3-hexenyl side chains were ineffective. Thus, both stereochemical and steric factors caused differences in sensitizing activity. In general, pyropheophorbide-alpha analogs were found to be more active than related chlorin e6 derivatives, in which the isocyclic ring (ring "E") was cleaved. Related photosensitizers in the 9-deoxy- series were found to be as effective as the corresponding pyropheophorbide-alpha analogs. The photosensitizers prepared from pyropheophorbide-alpha methyl ester and chlorin e6 trimethyl ester have long wavelength absorption at 660 nm (epsilon 45 000 to 50 000). Reduction of the carbonyl group in the pyropheophorbide-alpha to methylene (ring E) resulted in a blue shift to 648 nm (epsilon 38 000).

Ideology, Power, and Equity: Testing Competing Explanations for the Perception of Fairness in Household Labor

Abstract: Les AA. etudient les mecanismes de la perception et de la legitimation, de la division du travail au sein des menages. Ils isolent trois facteurs fondamentaux en ce domaine : l'adhesion a une ideologie traditionnelle de la division sexuelle des roles au sein du couple, les alternatives sociales et professionnelles des femmes vis-a-vis du mariage, l'equite dans les relations entre les partenaires. Ils presentent un certain nombre de donnees collectees aux Etats-Unis entre 1987 et 1988 qui confirment leur importance respective

Felt Obligation Towards Parents in Mexican-American and Anglo-American Young Adults:

Abstract: The present study compares self-reports of felt obligation towards parents, cultural attitudes about family functioning and perceptions of family interactions in a sample of 100 Mexican-American and Anglo-American young adults. On average, Mexican-American men and women reported significantly higher levels of familism, more collectivist attitudes and more helping behavior in relationships with parents than did Anglo-Americans, while Anglo respondents reported having more contact with social systems outside the family system. Mexican-American young adults generally reported feeling significantly more obligated to avoid conflict, provide assistance and strive for self-sufficiency in their relationships with parents than did Anglo-Americans. Cultural attitudes of familism and collectivism were related to reports of felt obligation for Mexican-American respondents but not for Anglo-American respondents. Implications of results for family development theory are discussed.

Gender diversity, team decision quality, time on task, and interpersonal cohesion

Abstract: Because of changing workplace demographics, teams are becoming more gender diverse. Most gender research has compared all-male with all-female teams or same-gender with balanced-gender teams. Using 96 four-person teams, this study examined the impact of 5 gender compositions (all-male, lone-female, balanced-gender; lone-male, and all-female) on decision quality, time on task, and interpersonal cohesion. Using a male-oriented task (t = 4.14, p < .05), data analyses revealed significant mean differences indecision quality across the various gender ratios, F(4, 91) = 2.72, p < .05. Furthermore, a trend analysis provided support for the expected direction of the mean differences. As the number of males in the team increased, so did team decision quality; however, lone female teams outperformed all-male teams, F(1, 91) = 9.02, p < .05. No significant differences in interpersonal cohesion or time on task were found across the various gender ratios. A "process" explanation of the findings isforwarded.

Unique ethical problems in information technology

Abstract: A distinction is made between moral indoctrination and instruction in ethics. It is argued that the legitimate and important field of computer ethics should not be permitted to become mere moral indoctrination. Computer ethics is an academic field in its own right with unique ethical issues that would not have existed if computer technology had not been invented. Several example issues are presented to illustrate this point. The failure to find satisfactory non-computer analogies testifies to the uniqueness of computer ethics. Lack of an effective analogy forces us to discover new moral values, formulate new moral principles, develop new policies, and find new ways to think about the issues presented to us. For all of these reasons, the kind of issues presented deserve to be addressed separately from others that might at first appear similar. At the very least, they have been so transformed by computing technology that their altered form demands special attention.

A Syncretical Model of Charismatic/Transformational Leadership

Abstract: Two key problems hamper the study of charismatic/transformational leadership. First, the field lacks a generally accepted conceptual framework to guide research and practice. Second, only limited e...

Racial and Ethnic Differences in the Role of Cohabitation in Premarital Childbearing.

Abstract: The research reported in this article focuses on the role of cohabitation in premarital childbearing among U.S. women. Using data from the National Survey of Families and Households and the New York Fertility, Employment and Migration Survey, we examine the influence of cohabitation on the likelihood of premarital pregnancy and the decision to marry between premarital conception and birth. Our analyses show marked racial and ethnic differences in the role of the cohabiting union in family building. Although cohabitation increases the rate of premarital pregnancy for all women, its effect is much greater among Puerto Ricans than among non-Hispanic Whites and African Americans. Cohabitation accelerates the transition to marriage among premaritally pregnant White women, but has no effect among Blacks and has a strong negative effect among Puerto Ricans. We interpret our findings in terms of long-standing family patterns and cultural traditions within each group. A common practice in demographic studies is to treat nonmarital childbearing as equivalent to single motherhood in spite of the fact that births to unmarried women are increasingly occurring within cohabitation. In the early 1980s, about one-quarter (27%) of nonmarital births in the United States were to women living in cohabiting unions (Bumpass & Sweet, 1989). There is considerable variation in this phenomenon by race and ethnicity. Among Puerto Ricans, over half (59%) of nonmarital births occurred within informal unions during this period (Landale & Hauan, 1992), in contrast to 40% among Mexican Americans, 29% among non-Hispanic Whites, and 18% among African Americans (Bumpass & Sweet, 1989). Moreover, births within cohabitation account for differences in the proportion of children born outside of marriage among Puerto Ricans, Mexican Americans, and non-Hispanic Whites (Bumpass & Sweet, 1989; Landale & Hauan, 1992). Despite the growing prevalence of cohabitation prior to marriage, few studies have considered the role of informal unions in premarital childbearing. Studies conducted in other countries (e.g., Balakrishnan, 1989; Cooper, 1991; Haskey & Kiernan, 1989; Leridon & Villeneuve-Gokalp, 1989) indicate that cohabitation is associated with a higher likelihood of childbearing among unmarried women. Although this linkage has not been examined in the U.S. context, a similar association is likely. Studies based on U.S. data show that never-married cohabiting women expect to have children sooner, have more frequent intercourse, and are more likely to approve of unmarried childbearing than their noncohabiting single counterparts (Bachrach, 1987; Rindfuss & VandenHeuvel, 1990; Sweet & Bumpass, 1990). Furthermore, cohabiting women are more likely to have greater commitment to their sexual partners than are noncohabiting women. The research reported here focuses on the role of cohabitation in childbearing among U.S. women who have never been married. Both the numbers presented above and research on the meaning of cohabitation for various racial and ethnic groups (e.g., Landale & Fennelly, 1992; Loomis & Landale, 1994; Manning, 1993) suggest potential group differences in the effect of cohabitation on the fertility of never-married women. Thus, the central questions we address are whether and to what extent cohabitation differentially influences entry into premarital motherhood by race and ethnicity. Our analyses focus on two key components of the process; leading to premarital motherhood: (a) the occurrence of a premarital pregnancy that results in a live birth and (b) the decision to marry between premarital conception and the birth of the child. Comparisons are made between cohabiting and noncohabiting African American, Puerto Rican, and non-Hispanic White women. We restrict our analyses and discussion of Puerto Ricans to those living in the mainland United States. For ease of presentation, w refer to this group as Puerto Ricans without further qualification throughout the text. …

Oxytocin mediates acquisition of maternally associated odor preferences in preweanling rat pups.

Abstract: Three studies assessed the role of central oxytocin systems in maternal affiliation in preweanling rats. Fifteen-day-old rats were found to approach on odor faster and spend more time in contact with an odor when it had been paired with the mother on the previous day than when the odor was not paired with the mother, provided that the pairing occurred after either intracerebral administration of oxytocin (0.5 microgram) or saline. However, if rats were administered an oxytocin antagonist (OTA) prior to odor-mother pairing, neither the decreased odor approach latency nor the increased odor preference was apparent in the odor-mother group. OTA treatment did not attenuate a single-trial odor aversion learning task, nor did it disrupt interaction with the anesthetized mother. Results are discussed in terms of a possible reward-satiety role for oxytocin in the infant-mother context.

Influence of a Cross‐Cultural Training Course on Racial Identity Attitudes of White Women and Men: Preliminary Perspectives

Abstract: The authors examine the influence of cross-cultural training on the racial identity attitudes of 35 White graduate counselors in training (10 men and 25 women) and the impact of gender on training. A pretest-posttest comparison of responses to the White Racial Identity Attitudes Survey (WRIAS) was used. Results indicated that the cross-cultural training course (a) influenced racial identity attitudes of White counselors in training and (b) racial identity attitudes were influenced by gender.

Reflections on Consumer Sophistication and Its Impact on Ethical Business Practice

Abstract: This paper investigates consumer sophistication and its role in the development of proactive public policy. Consumer sophistication is examined in light of several historical shifts in market structure and consumer lifestyles. These shifts create market conditions that foster the emergence of a “Corporate Dilemma” in which unsophisticated consumers reward unethical business practices and punish ethical business behavior. To reduce unethical business practices in the market, this paper proposes that the optimum level of interim government intervention should be based on the level of consumer sophistication in the market.

Environmental Education Programs for Preschool Children

Abstract: Ongoing environmental education programs for preschoolers are scarce. Those that do exist tend to be affiliated with either early childhood education settings or environmental education settings. A study was done to locate ongoing environmental education programs for preschool children and to identify the nature and characteristics of such programs. A total of 12 programs were identified; 9 were included in this study. Two different approaches were used for data collection: site visits and a written survey. Findings suggest that ongoing early childhood environmental education (ECEE) programs, regardless of setting, tend to share many common characteristics. They also tend to serve primarily children from White, middleclass backgrounds.

Does body and fin form affect the maneuverability of fish traversing vertical and horizontal slits

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to determine if body and fin form affected the maneuverability of teleostean fishes as measured by their ability to negotiate simple obstacles. Obstacles were vertical and horizontal rectangular slits of different widths, for which width was defined as the minimum dimension of a slit irrespective of slit orientation. Performance was measured as the smallest slit width traversed. Three species with different body and fin patterns were induced to swim through slits. Species tested were; goldfish Carassius auratus with a fusiform body, anterio-ventral pectoral fins and posterio-ventral pelvic fins; silver dollars Metynnis hypsauchen with the same fin configurations but a gibbose body; angelfish Pterophyllum scalare with a gibbose body and anterio-lateral pectoral fins. Minimum slit widths negotiated were normalized with the length of various body dimensions: total length, maximum width, span at the pectoral fins, and volume1/3 (numerically equal to mass1/3). Goldfish had the poorest performance, requiring the largest slit widths relative to these body dimensions. No consistent patterns in performance were found for silver dollars vs. angelfish. There were no differences among species in the ratio of minimum vertical slit width negotiated to that for horizontal slits, indicating fish were equally able to control posture while swimming on their sides. There were also no consistent patterns in the times taken to transit slits. Although the deep-bodied fish were able to maneuver through smaller slits, the most striking result is the similarity of minimum slit widths traversed in spite of the large variation in body form. Body form and fin plan may be more important for maneuvering and posture control during sub-maximum routine activities.

Backward optical parametric oscillators and amplifiers

Abstract: Degenerate backward optical parametric oscillators and amplifiers have been considered, for the first time, to the best of our knowledge. When the pump intensity is four times the threshold pump intensity, the conversion efficiency reaches a maximum value. On the other hand, for nondegenerate optical parametric oscillators, the conversion efficiency always increases as the pump intensity increases. This behavior is different from those for forward optical parametric oscillators. In either configuration, the oscillation can occur without an external feedback. There is, however, a distributed feedback provided through the opposite propagation directions of the signal and idler. The threshold pump intensities for the oscillators can be achieved by the lasers currently available based on quasi-phase matching in several structures. As the input intensity for the backward parametric wave increases, the gain for this wave decreases dramatically if the pump intensity is on the order of the threshold or higher. When the input intensity is much larger than the threshold pump intensity, there is almost no gain regardless of the level of the pump intensity.

Cross-situational patterns in children's coping with observed interpersonal conflict.

Abstract: Investigated cross-situational patterns in children's coping with observed interpersonal conflict. Children in Grades 4, 5, 7, and 8 (N = 417) reported on their use of five coping responses when exposed to conflict they observed between the adults in their homes and between their peers. Although children reported using the same relative pattern of coping responses across situations (i.e., distancing/denial the most, support seeking the least), they used a much higher level of internalizing/worrying responses when exposed to the adult conflict situation than the peer conflict situation. Sex and developmental differences were not consistent across observed interpersonal conflict situations.