Showing papers in "Personnel Psychology in 1996"

Person-organization fit: an integrative review of its conceptualizations, measurement, and implications

Abstract: This article presents a comprehensive definition and conceptual model of person-organization fit that incorporates supplementary as well as complementary perspectives on fit. To increase the precision of the construct's definition, it is also distinguished from other forms of environmental compatibility, silch as person-group and person-vocation fit. Once defined, commensurate measurement as it relates to supplementary and complementary fit is discussed and recommendations are offered regarding the necessity of its use. A distinction is made between the direct measurement of perceived fit and the indirect measurement of actual person-organization fit, using both cross- and individual-level techniques, and the debate regarding differences scores is reviewed. These definitional and measurement issues frame a review of the existing literature, as well as provide the basis for specific research propositions and suggestions for managerial applications.

A cross-level investigation of factors influencing unsafe behaviors and accidents

Abstract: Several recent reviews of industrial accidents have given increased attention to the role of organizational factors as antecedents to the accident sequence. In the current study, three group-level factors (i.e., group process, safety climate, and intentions to approach other team members engaged in unsafe acts) and one individual-level factor (i.e., perceptions of role overload) were hypothesized to influence the frequency of reported unsafe behaviors using a cross-level research strategy. Data were collected from 21 teams and 222 individuals in a Midwestern chemical processing plant. Both the individual and group-level variables were significantly associated with unsafe behaviors, thereby supporting the cross-level hypotheses. There was also initial evidence suggesting that the group process-unsafe behavior relationship was mediated by intentions to approach other team members engaged in unsafe acts. At the team level of analysis, safety climate and unsafe behaviors were significantly associated with actual accidents. Group process and approach intentions were marginally related to actual accidents (p < .10). The implications for a cross-level approach to safety and interventions is discussed.

Relations between work team characteristics and effectiveness: a replication and extension

Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated that work team characteristics can be related to effectiveness (Campion, Medsker, & Higgs, 1993). This study provides a replication with professional knowledge worker jobs, different measures of effectiveness, and work units that varied in the degree to which members identified as a team. Data were collected from 357 employees, 93 managers, and archival records for 60 teams in a financial services organization. Team characteristics were measured with questionnaires completed by employees and managers. Effectiveness measures included immediate manager judgments at two points in time, senior and peer manager judgments, employee judgments, and archival records of employee satisfaction and performance appraisals. Results were similar to previous findings in that most team characteristics were related to most effectiveness criteria. Relationships were strongest for process characteristics, followed by job design, context, interdependence, and other characteristics. Further, work units higher on single-team identity were higher on many team characteristics and effectiveness measures.

Linking employee perceptions of service climate to customer satisfaction

Abstract: Although a common theme in the service quality literature is that organizations must create and maintain a climate for service in order for employees to effectively deliver service, few studies exist that evaluate climate for service components against a criterion of customer satisfaction. The effectiveness of different aspects of a climate for service is evaluated by determining the relationships between service climate components and facets of customer satisfaction, as rated by 538 employees and 7,944 customers across 57 branches of a large bank. All service climate components were significantly related to at least one facet of customer satisfaction (e.g., teller service). Seeking and sharing information about customers' needs and expectations, training in delivering quality service, and rewarding and recognizing excellent service were the practices that were most highly related to satisfaction with service quality.

Attitudes and effectiveness: examining relations at an organizational level

Abstract: Recent evidence has suggested that attitudes-organizational effectiveness relations may exist. Relations between employee attitudes, organizational unit performance, customer satisfaction, and turnover were examined at the branch level for a large automobile finance company. Using data from 142 branches in 2 consecutive years, several significant relations between attitude factors and performance were observed. In addition, causal analyses conducted at the branch level suggested that customer satisfaction led to employee attitudes, rather than the opposite. Additional analyses to explain this result suggested that economic conditions and related factors might be the causal mechanism at the aggregated level. Other potential interpretations of these findings and caveats about generalizing organizational-level findings to the individual level are discussed.

New developments in the use of measures of honesty integrity, conscientiousness, dependability trustworthiness, and reliability for personnel selection

Abstract: This paper is the fourth in a series of reviews of the use of measures of honesty, integrity, conscientiousness, dependability, trustworthiness, and reliability for personnel selection (see Sackett & Decker, 1979; Sackett & Harris, 1984; Sackett, Burris, & Callahan, 1989). New developments reviewed include an examination of professional and congressional inquiry into this area of testing, rapid growth of the validity data base, new insight into similarities and differences between different tests, and links to the Big Five personality dimensions. Inquiries into relationships with other constructs, including cognitive ability, moral reasoning, and social desirability are reviewed, as are applicant reactions to these tests. The effects of the Civil Rights Act of 1991 and the Americans with Disabilities Act are considered.

The joint effects of conscientiousness and self‐leadership training on employee self‐directed behavior in a service setting

Abstract: This field investigation examined the effects of conscientiousness and self-leadership training on employee self-direction Conscientiousness correlated significantly with supervisor evaluations of self-direction for employees working in a hotel/resort Self-leadership training was then conducted for a group of the employees Gain score analysis failed to detect an overall effect for training on self-direction However, conscientiousness was found to moderate the effect of self-leadership training in that training group employees who initially scored low on conscientiousness improved their behavior more than their high conscientiousness coworkers Implications of these findings for the practices of employee training and selection are discussed

Training team performance‐related assertiveness

Abstract: The present paper extends the existing literature on assertiveness in a way that supports industrial training as well as the selection of individuals for team positions. Data are reported from three studies that examined determinants of team performance-related assertiveness. First, data from 149 college students demonstrated that assertiveness consists of multiple dimensions which were not all related to performance in a team decision-making task. Second, data obtained from 225 business students indicated that correlations among self-report measures and peer ratings of the same assertive responses assigned by intact team members varied according to the interpersonal context (i.e., personal, stranger, work related) in which scale items were framed. Third, data from 60 college students suggested that team performance-related assertiveness has a significant skill component. Whereas both attitudinally focused and skill-based training improved attitudes toward team member assertiveness, practice and feedback were essential to producing behavioral effects. Implications for selection and team training are discussed.

Design, validity, and use of strategically focused employee attitude surveys

Abstract: This paper presents logic, procedures, validity, and use of employee attitude surveys targeted on strategic objectives of the firm. The logic is that employees at the front line are in an optimal position to report on the degree to which strategic initiatives are being carried out. The procedure is to design survey questions that focus on the initiative rather than on employees' personal feelings or satisfaction. To validate employee reports, the relationships between those reports and customer satisfaction over four quarters of the use of the survey are shown. Evidence shows that the logical and empirical keying of employee surveys to strategic initiatives and objectives of the firm provide data of immediate use to management, in the present case to both marketing and human resources management. By the 1930s employee attitude surveys were being frequently used in business to assess and document employee morale. History shows that, with the advent of the Thurstone procedure for attitude assessment (Thurstone & Chave, 1929), the large scale assessment of attitudes, both at work and elsewhere, took hold. Tiffin in 1942 noted that (p. 318): Until recently, management attempted to keep in touch with the morale of the working force only through such factors as chance remarks by employees, appearance and behavior of men [sic] at work, and occasional reports by supervisors. These methods were none too satisfactory.... [I]f morale is to be gauged or measured, means must be found to encourage employees to express their honest feelings and reactions. The most satisfactory method of doing this is by means of an anonymous attitude survey or labor audit.

Longitudinal analysis of ability-job complexity fit and job change

Abstract: The study examines job mobility as a function of congruence between individuals' abilities and their job's complexity. The gravitational hypothesis (McCormick, DeNisi, & Staw, 1979; McCormick, Jeanneret, & Mecham, 1972), a keystone of this objective, posits that individuals will sort into jobs that are commensurate with their ability level. This study used various analytical techniques to examine the relationship between ability, person-job fit, and occupational mobility. First, the gravitational hypothesis was tested. Second, the direction of mismatch between ability and job complexity was hypothesized to predict direction of change in job complexity over time. Two national, longitudinal databases, the National Longitudinal Study of the Class of 1972 (NLS-72) and the National Longitudinal Survey of Labor Market Experience-Youth Cohort (NLSY), were used to test these relationships. Results were supportive in both the NLS-72 and the NLSY. Additional analyses examined the difference between measures of objective job complexity and subjective job complexity (Gerhart, 1988) for the gravitational process and the difference in employer- and employee-initiated job changes. These results have implications for employers, vocational counselors and job applicants. Suggestions for improving the ability-job complexity match are provided.

Generic work behavior: an investigation into the dimensions of entry-level, hourly job performance

Abstract: Generic work behavior is defined as behavior that contributes to the performance of virtually any job independent of technical job roles. Variations in generic work behavior are primarily dependent on differences in volition, and the effects of generic work behavior are likely to be the most prevalent in jobs where performance does not depend heavily on job-specific knowledge, skills, or ability. Analysis of supervisor ratings of specific employee behaviors gathered from 18,146 employees in 42 different hourly, entry-level jobs in predominantly retail settings suggests the existence of at least eight specific dimensions of generic work behavior: industriousness, thoroughness, schedule flexibility, attendance, off-task behavior, unruliness, theft, and drug misuse. These components were integrated with performance components identified in previous studies to develop a taxonomy of generic work behavior. Implications of this taxonomy for the measurement, prediction, and conceptualization of job performance are discussed.

Using random rather than fixed effects models in meta‐analysis: implications for situational specificity and validity generalization

Abstract: Combining statistical information across studies (i.e., meta-analysis) is a standard research tool in applied psychology. The most common meta-analytic approach in applied psychology, the fixed effects approach, assumes that individual studies are homogeneous and are sampled from the same population. This model assumes that sampling error alone explains the majority of observed differences in study effect sizes and its use has lead some to challenge the notion of situational specificity in favor of validity generalization. We critique the fixed effects methodology and propose an advancement–the random effects model (RE) which provides estimates of how between-study differences influence the relationships under study. RE models assume that studies are heterogeneous since they are often conducted by different investigators under different settings. Parameter estimates of both models are compared and evidence in favor of the random effects approach is presented. We argue against use of the fixed effects model because it may lead to misleading conclusions about situational specificity.

A longitudinal study of upward feedback

Abstract: This study followed 92 managers during four administrations of an upward feedback program over 2.5 years. Managers' whose initial level of performance (defined as the average rating from subordinates) was low improved between Administrations 1 and 2, and sustained this improvement 2 years later. Most of the performance improvement occurred between the first and second administrations of the program. The observed performance improvement could not be attributed solely to regression to the mean and was unrelated to the number of times, or when, the managers received feedback. Our results suggest that the continued administration of an upward feedback program can result in sustained change over a fairly long period of time and that actually receiving feedback may be less important than the exposure to the valued behaviors. We use control theory and goal setting theory as frameworks for explaining the results and suggesting directions for future research.

Interpersonal affect and performance appraisal: a field study

Abstract: Interpersonal affect has been found, in prior laboratory research, to be related to ratings of job performance. Such findings have been taken to mean that affect creates bias in ratings. The present study was conducted to determine if this relationship would hold up in a field setting. The present study was also designed to examine how structured diary-keeping, and the nature of the appraisal instrument, might be related to affect-appraisal relationships. The results for 85 raters, and 404 ratees, suggested that affect was significantly related to all ratings, but more strongly related to trait-like ratings than task/outcome-like ratings, and that having raters keep performance diaries actually increased the strength of the relationship between affect and ratings. We concluded that affect may not be a biasing influence on ratings, but may be a result of better subordinate performance. Results from an analysis of the diary content supported this conclusion. Implications for the role of affect on ratings and the nature of the relationship between past performance and interpersonal affect in field settings are discussed.

Multi-stage selection strategies: A Monte Carlo investigation of effects on performance and minority hiring.

Abstract: This study explores alternative selection strategies available when a firm has two valid predictors that differ in the magnitude of subgroup differences. We examine 14 different selection rules (e.g., select on a composite of the two predictors versus screen on the first and then select on the second versus screen on the first and then select on a composite of the two), and document through a Monte Carlo simulation that the various selection rules can produce markedly different consequences in terms of the level of job performance achieved and the level of minority representation achieved. The selection rules examined include the use of within-group norming, whichwas restricted by the Civil Rights Act of 1991, and the study examines how selection rules that do and do not include within-group norming fare in terms of the tradeoffs between performance and minority representation. The study shows that the preferred selection strategy will depend on the relative value the firm places on performance and on minority representation, and that the effects of different screen-then-select selection strategies vary as a result of the selection ratios at the screening and selection stages, thus precluding simple conclusions about the merits of each selection strategy.

The perceptions and usage of statistical power in applied psychology and management research

Abstract: We first assess the current level of statistical power across articles in seven leading journals that represent a broad sample of applied psychology and management research. We next survey the authors of these articles to examine their perceptions and usage of statistical power analysis. Finally, we examine the perceptions and usage of power analysis in a survey of authors of regression-based research appearing in leading journals. Findings from the assessment of power and surveys of researchers indicate that power analyses are not typically conducted, researchers perceive little need for statistical power, and power in published research is low. We conclude by discussing implications of low power for the field and recommending avenues for improving researchers' awareness and usage of statistical power.

Individual differences in interviewer ratings: the impact of standardization, consensus discussion, and sampling error on the validity of a structured interview

Abstract: This research investigated empirical issues regarding the validity of individual interviewers’(N= 62) ratings collected after a structured interview Each interviewer rated an average of 25 interviewees One hypothesis examined but not supported was that systematic interviewer errors will attenuate interview validity when data are aggregated across interviewers Also investigated was the validity of ratings averaged across interviewers compared to consensus ratings; consensus ratings were shown to have significantly but probably not practically higher validities Third, a meta-analysis of individual interviewer validities revealed that all of the variance in validities could be attributed to sampling error Results and implications are discussed

Item generation procedures and background data scales: implications for construct and criterion‐related validity

Abstract: Background data measures are one of the best predictors of job performance. Nonetheless, questions have been raised about their content and construct validity. The present effort describes a set of procedures for developing construct and content valid background data items. Data gathered in seven field studies and six laboratory studies are presented bearing on the reliability and validity of the measures constructed using these item generation procedures. Findings in these studies indicate that construct-based item generation procedures yield reliable scales evidencing both content and construct validity. Furthermore, these scales are capable of predicting performance in a variety of settings. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings for the development and validation of background data measures are discussed.

Procedural and distributive justice in the editorial review process

Abstract: Based on organizational justice theories, a model of procedural and distributive justice is proposed to explain authors' reactions to editorial decisions and the editorial review process Authors (n= 106) provided justice perceptions and future journal submission intentions upon receiving an editorial decision letter The editor provided information on editorial decisions and review processes Explanation and interpersonal sensitivity were important procedural justice dimensions in predicting distributive justice reactions and intentions to submit future work to the journal Explanations appear particularly important when the decision is negative Journal submission intentions were positively related to distributive justice reactions for inexperienced, but not experienced, authors In addition, journal submission intentions were positively related to the perceived explanation received for experienced, but not inexperienced, authors Discussion focuses on implications for organizational justice theories and for journal publishing and HR practices

None of your business: parameters of biodata invasiveness

Abstract: In this research, biodata items were evaluated for their perceived invasiveness by over 200 professionals (psychologists and social scientists), as well as three samples of nonprofessionals. In addition to item subject matter, perceived invasiveness of items was related to various biodata attributes, in that items that were more verifiable, more transparent in purpose, and more impersonal were seen as less invasive. Subjects with more positive attitudes toward biodata and organizational selection measures viewed fewer items as invasive, as did those with more education. Dispositional variables and gender were related to invasiveness perceptions in some samples. Four general motives or topics were determined to generate the greatest concern: fear of stigmatization, concern about having applicants recall traumatic events, intimacy, and religion. The results may help develop consensus about defining “invasive” and contribute to ways of reducing perceptions of invasiveness.

Do situational variables act as substantive causes of relationships between individual difference variables? Two large-scale tests of "common cause" models.

Abstract: James, Demaree, Mulaik, and Ladd (1992) proposed that situational variables may act as substantive (“common”) causes of relationships between individual difference variables as well as statistical artifacts (i.e., measurement unreliability) associated with these variables, thus invalidating assumptions of current validity generalization/meta-analysis procedures. In this investigation, we report the results of two large-scale studies designed to test hypothesized relationships derived from two “common cause” models. Study 1 examines relationships between store-level organizational climate variables and employee satisfaction and performance variables for 33,097 sales personnel in 537 retail stores. Study 2 investigates relationships between store-level situational constraints and customer service perception and shopping variables for 31,611 customers from 564 retail stores. The results of these studies did not support the proposition that situational variables act as substantive causes of correlations among the respective employee and customer variables or the variances and reliabilities of these variables. The implications of these findings for meta-analyses in applied psychology as well as the generalizability of the findings are discussed.

Statistical power and cost in training evaluation: some new considerations

Abstract: Two ways to reduce the costs of training evaluation are examined. First, we examine the potential for reducing the costs of training evaluation by assigning different numbers of subjects into training and control groups. Given a total N of subjects, statistical power to detect the effectiveness of a training program can be maximized by assigning the subjects equally to training and control groups. If we take into account the costs of training evaluation, however, an unequal-group-size design with a larger total N may achieve the same level of statistical power at lower cost. We derive formulas for the optimal ratios of the control group size to the training group size for both ANOVA and ANCOVA designs, incorporating the differential costs of training and control group participation. Second, we examine the possibility that using a less expensive proxy criterion measure in place of the target criterion measure of interest when evaluating the training effectiveness can pay off. We show that using a proxy criterion increases the sample size needed to achieve a given level of statistical power, and then we describe procedures for examining the tradeoff between the costs saved by using the less expensive proxy criterion and the costs incurred by the larger sample size.

To lead, lag, or match: estimating the financial impact of pay level policies

Abstract: In this study, the Boudreau and Berger (1985a) retention/acquisition model is modified in order to develop a utility model that can be used to assess the impact of alternative pay level policies. This paper then demonstrates how the model could be used to assess the financial impact of alternative pay level policies for an organization whose current policy is to match the market. In demonstrating this, estimates of the effect of pay level on employee and applicant behaviors are presented. The utility model is then used to translate these effects into financial terms and compare them against the wage costs associated with alternative pay level policies. Finally, break-even analysis is used to suggest how decision makers might use utility results when making decisions about pay level policy. The implications for pay level policy and the role of utility analysis in compensation decision making are discussed.

Computerized decision aids for flexible benefits decisions: the effects of an expert system and decision support system on employee intentions and satisfaction with benefits

Abstract: Review chapters and case descriptions suggest that expert systems and decision support systems are useful decision aids in human resource management Our study examines this belief by exploring the effects of two such systems on the quality of employees' desired benefit choices and satisfaction with benefits in a flexible benefits environment Results show that employees' current benefit choices and desired benefit changes are related to satisfaction with benefits Those using both computerized decision aids signaled benefit choice intentions that more closely corresponded to expert system recommendations than those not using a decision aid, but those using the expert system desired to make more expert-like decisions than those using the decision support system In addition, those using the expert system had greater satisfaction with benefits than those not using a decision aid and those using the decision support system These results suggest that expert systems have potential for improving decision making and influencing employees' attitudes for human resource problems

Development of a job analysis-based procedure for weighting and combining content related tests into a single test battery score

Abstract: By definition, content-related approaches to test validation do not rely on criterion data As a consequence, regression and other statistical procedures for weighting and generating a composite score from a test battery are not applicable when a content-related validation strategy is used This paper presents a procedure for determining the component weights for a test battery that has been developed on the basis of a content-related validity strategy The Relative Content Contribution (RCC) weighting procedure is a logical extension of the conceptual basis underlying the rational developmental process used to demonstrate the validity of content-related tests Results from field implementations of the procedure in the development of two promotional test batteries (fire and police) and an entry-level test battery (police) in two large metropolitan cities are presented to illustrate the procedure

The pen‐based computer as an alternative platform for test administration

Abstract: Pen-based computers are similar to paper and pencil (PP construct equivalence was evaluated by comparing Day 1-Day 2 correlations across conditions. Although construct equivalence was found for the power tests, differences emerged for the speeded tests. For the pen-based computer, solid evidence of equivalence to P&P appeared for all but one of the speeded tests, whereas the keyboard PC showed borderline equivalence for only one of the three speeded tests. These findings suggested that the pen-entry computer may be more capable than the keyboard-entry computer in maintaining construct equivalence to P&P tests.

Recruitment and retention decisions that maximize the utility of a probationary selection to obtain a fixed quota of successful selectees

Abstract: This article addresses the recruitment and retention decision problems that the selection practitioner faces when the objective is to maximize the utility of a fixed quota of successful selectees. Because the objective can be achieved by either a one-cohort or a multiple cohort with replacement approach, two optimizing procedures are presented. Given information on the selection predictor and the available recruiting sources, both procedures identify the criterion cutoff value (i.e., the critical value of the observed job performance at the end of the probationary period) that makes the best differentiation between successful and unsuccessful selectees. In addition, the proposals indicate the combination of recruiting sources (one-cohort approach) or the sequence of recruiting source combinations (multiple cohort approach) that, in combination with the optimal retention decision, result in the maximum possible utility of the predictor selected workforce. So, the article extends the previous contribution of, among others, Martin and Raju (1992) and Law and Myors (1993) to the case where not all the selectees are considered as successful. Also, the proposal recognizes the fact that the average quality of the applicants may vary across the recruitment sources.

Calculating eeo statistics in the temporary help industry

Abstract: The temporary workforce has experienced tremendous growth in the past decade. Given the number of individuals employed by temporary help firms, it is surprising that so little attention has been given to EEO issues in this industry. The calculation of flow statistics in the temporary help industry presents some unique concerns because of the multiple status states (e.g., active, placed) an individual might hold. Difficulties in calculating compliance figures are illustrated with data from one temporary services firm. Record keeping recommendations are detailed.