Showing papers in "Anatomical Sciences Education in 2008"

How much anatomy is enough

Abstract: Innovations in undergraduate medical education, such as integration of disciplines and problem based learning, have given rise to concerns about students' knowledge of anatomy. This article originated from several studies investigating the knowledge of anatomy of students at the eight Dutch medical schools. The studies showed that undergraduate students uniformly perceived deficiencies in their anatomical knowledge when they started clinical training regardless of their school's didactic approach. A study assessing students' actual knowledge of clinical anatomy revealed no relationship between students' knowledge and the school's didactic approach. Test failure rates based on absolute standards set by different groups of experts were indicative of unsatisfactory levels of anatomical knowledge, although standards differed markedly between the groups of experts. Good test performance by students seems to be related to total teaching time for anatomy, teaching in clinical context, and revisiting anatomy topics in the course of the curriculum. These factors appeared to outweigh the effects of disciplinary integration or whether the curriculum was problem-based or traditional.

Modified Use of Team-Based Learning for Effective Delivery of Medical Gross Anatomy and Embryology.

Abstract: Team-based learning (TBL) is an instructional strategy that combines independent out-of-class preparation for in-class discussion in small groups. This approach has been successfully adopted by a number of medical educators. This strategy allowed us to eliminate anatomy lectures and incorporate small-group active learning. Although our strategy is a modified use of classical TBL, in the text, we use the standard terminology of TBL for simplicity. We have modified classical TBL to fit our curricular needs and approach. Anatomy lectures were replaced with TBL activities that required pre-class reading of assigned materials, an individual self-assessment quiz, discussion of learning issues derived from the reading assignments, and then the group retaking the same quiz for discussion and deeper learning. Students' performances and their educational experiences in the TBL format were compared with the traditional lecture approach. We offer several in-house unit exams and a final comprehensive subject exam provided by the National Board of Medical Examiners. The students performed better in all exams following the TBL approach compared to traditional lecture-based teaching. Students acknowledged that TBL encouraged them to study regularly, allowed them to actively teach and learn from peers, and this served to improve their own exam performances. We found that a TBL approach in teaching anatomy allowed us to create an active learning environment that helped to improve students' performances. Based on our experience, other preclinical courses are now piloting TBL.

Body painting as a tool in clinical anatomy teaching.

Abstract: The teaching of human anatomy has had to respond to significant changes in medical curricula, and it behooves anatomists to devise alternative strategies to effectively facilitate learning of the discipline by medical students in an integrated, applied, relevant, and contextual framework. In many medical schools, the lack of cadaver dissection as the primary method of learning is driving changes to more varied and novel learning and teaching methodologies. The present article describes the introduction and evaluation of a range of body painting exercises in a medical curriculum. Body painting was introduced into integrated clinical skills teaching sessions which included clinically important aspects of respiratory system, musculoskeletal system, and topics in regional anatomy including head and neck. Nontoxic body paints, easels, a mixture of brush sizes, and anatomical images were supplied. Students were allowed between 20 and 40 min to complete body painting tasks, in which they were encouraged to alternate between painting and acting as a model. Students were encouraged to use life-like rendering and coloration where appropriate. Evaluation of these sessions was performed at the end of the semester as part of a larger evaluation process. The kinesthetic nature and active participation together with the powerful visual images of underlying anatomy appear to contribute to the value of body painting as a teaching exercise. In addition, it may have the added bonus of helping break down apprehension regarding peer-peer examination. Some practical advice on introducing this method of teaching in medical curricula based on the outcomes of the evaluation is given. On the basis of our experience and student feedback, we strongly advocate the use of body painting as an adjunct to surface anatomy and clinical skills teaching classes.

Diffusion of innovations: smartphones and wireless anatomy learning resources.

Abstract: The author has previously reported on principles of diffusion of innovations, the processes by which new technologies become popularly adopted, specifically in relation to anatomy and education. In presentations on adopting handheld computers [personal digital assistants (PDAs)] and personal media players for health sciences education, particular attention has been directed to the anticipated integration of PDA functions into popular cellular telephones. However, limited distribution of early "smartphones" (e.g., Palm Treo and Blackberry) has provided few potential users for anatomical learning resources. In contrast, iPod media players have been self-adopted by millions of students, and "podcasting" has become a popular medium for distributing educational media content. The recently introduced Apple iPhone has combined smartphone and higher resolution media player capabilities. The author successfully tested the iPhone and the "work alike" iPod touch wireless media player with text-based "flashcard" resources, existing PDF educational documents, 3D clinical imaging data, lecture "podcasts," and clinical procedure video. These touch-interfaced, mobile computing devices represent just the first of a new generation providing practical, scalable wireless Web access with enhanced multimedia capabilities. With widespread student self-adoption of such new personal technology, educators can look forward to increasing portability of well-designed, multiplatform "learn anywhere" resources.

Peer teaching among physical therapy students during human gross anatomy: Perceptions of peer teachers and students

Abstract: Despite nearly 200 accredited entry-level physical therapist education programs in the United States that culminate in a doctoral degree, only a paucity of reports have been published regarding the efficacy of peer teaching in gross anatomy. No one has described the usefulness of peer teaching from the viewpoint of the peer teacher. An organized peer teaching method provided by four second-year doctors of physical therapy (DPT) students in a semester course in gross anatomy had a positive impact on the academic performance in gross anatomy of first-year DPT students. The unique feature of the weekly peer teaching sessions was a packet assembled by the second-year peer teachers, which contained diagrams, fill-in-the blank questions, and helpful mnemonic devices. This study surveyed perceptions of first-year DPT students in response to a peer teaching method, using a structured 10-item questionnaire and a five-point Likert scale. Second-year DPT peer teachers provided written reflections about the benefits and challenges of serving as a peer teacher. Results revealed that 13 planned peer-teaching experiences provided by four second-year DPT students were valuable and promoted a firm understanding of anatomical relationships important for the clinical competence of physical therapist students. Moreover, peer teachers acknowledged acquiring clinically desirable teaching, academic, organizational, and time management skills from the experience. As a result, physical therapist educators may wish to consider this model of peer teaching to augment their teaching strategies for a class in gross human anatomy.

The influence of study methods and knowledge processing on academic success and long-term recall of anatomy learning by first-year veterinary students.

Abstract: The purpose of this investigation was to quantitatively and qualitatively identify the study methods and learning strategies that veterinary students used to study anatomy during their first year of professional school and to correlate these with their academic achievement and long-term recall of information. It was surmised that active study methods would be more beneficial than passive method, but this hypothesis was not supported. The activity or passivity of each study method was secondary to the way in which the students processed the learning. No single study method was associated with academic success or long-term recall; instead, successful students used a multitude of study methods while the struggling students relied on a single method alone, although these methods varied from student to student. Students and their study methods were profiled using the qualitative technique known as phenomenographic analysis to find those who studied in a deep or surface way. The deep-processing students, who commonly used multiple study methods, not only succeeded in the class but also had better recall. Students who relied on a memorization-heavy surface approach to learning had limited recall and tended to perform poorly in the class. These results strongly suggest that by encouraging students to integrate their studying by using multiple methods educators can improve both student grades and recall of complex topics. Anat Sci Ed 1:68–74, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Learning to be a doctor while learning anatomy

Abstract: This article presents results from a longitudinal study following a cohort of medical students. Semistructured interviews are conducted every year, in which the students tell about their experiences learning medicine, their daily life, and their social activities in relation to university. The aim of the study is to analyze how medical students develop their professional competencies, values, and attitudes. This article focuses on the medical student's professional development in relation to the process of studying and learning anatomy. We analyze interviews conducted while the students are in their third and fifth semester. Anatomy plays a significant role in the medical student's educational process, on both a cognitive and emotional level. It seems that students in learning the subject matter adapt to fundamental values in the medical profession and are thus transformed into real medical students, sharing a unique experience. The implications for curricular development and professionalism are discussed, and this article argues that the issue of professionalism must be addressed in the educational process in the preclinical years and in relation to the basic sciences.

An Explorative Learning Approach to Teaching Clinical Anatomy Using Student Generated Content

Abstract: Translating basic sciences into a clinical framework has been approached through the implementation of various teaching techniques aimed at using a patient case scenario to facilitate learning. These techniques present students with a specific patient case and lead the students to discuss physiological processes through analysis of provided data supported by independent learning and research. However, no literature exists that describes a reverse teaching methodology in which students are given disease diagnosis and then asked to construct a patient case. This article discusses an explorative learning approach introduced in the gross anatomy course in which students were asked to use clinical skills and reasoning to create a patient case. The online knowledge-sharing portal utilizing MediaWiki provided a necessary base for students in completing their task. Teams were given 4 weeks to complete their written online project with weekly feedback provided by 3rd year teaching assistants using the Wiki discussion page. A survey was performed to assess competence regarding a patient write up and oral presentation. Skills that the teams acquired through the completion of this project will benefit future patient interactions. This project also emphasized and reinforced the importance of effective communication, leadership, and teamwork. This study shows that a clinical anatomy project that incorporates explorative learning can be an effective way of introducing students to the skills needed for patient write ups and oral presentations. Furthermore this approach to learning allows students to excel during their clinical years and to correlate anatomy to clinical diagnoses.

Effect of the use of instructional anatomy videos on student performance.

Abstract: Medical schools have reduced the time allotted to anatomy instruction. Consequently, schools engage students in more independent settings using information and communication technologies (ICT). There has been limited research in the use of video aids, a type of ICT, to enhance anatomy examination performance. The objective of this study is to describe the design, usage, and effect on examination performance of eight locally developed instructional anatomy videos. First-year UCSF medical students (n = 141) had access to the videos. They reported their video usage, reason for usage, and satisfaction. The prior year students (n = 141) served as a historical control group. Anatomy and radiology examination performance was compared between groups while controlling for prior performance. The students with and without access to the videos did not differ in examination performance. Sixty-one (43%) students in the experimental group responded to the survey. Of these, 79% reported using at least one video, viewing an average of 4.75 of the eight videos. They watched 3.27 (SD = 1.57, range 1–5) of the five anatomy videos and 1.48 (SD = 1.35; range 0–3) of the three radiology videos. In a regression analysis controlling for age and MCAT scores, using the anatomy videos at least once improved anatomy examination performance by 3.4% (P-value = 0.007). There was no relationship between radiology video usage and radiology exam score. Video resource availability did not enhance student performance in anatomy and radiology. However, when analyzing performance for those whom we knew level of video use, there was a statistically different and higher anatomy achievement. Anat Sci Ed, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Improved learning efficiency and increased student collaboration through use of virtual microscopy in the teaching of human pathology.

Abstract: The implementation of virtual microscopy in the teaching of pathology at the Bloomington, Indiana extension of the Indiana University School of Medicine permitted the assessment of student attitudes, use and academic performance with respect to this new technology. A gradual and integrated approach allowed the parallel assessment with respect to both the virtual and optical microscopes. Student survey data indicated that the virtual imaging technology was enthusiastically received, and aggregate grade comparisons with the previous classes showed no decrease in content mastery. Survey questions assessing a variety of parameters reveal improved time and resource utilization, as well as increased student collaboration. Even so, 50% of the respondents indicated having both optical and virtual microscopes available was preferable.

Coupled physical and digital cadaver dissection followed by a visual test protocol provides insights into the nature of anatomical knowledge and its evaluation

Abstract: This research effort compared and contrasted two conceptually different methods for the exploration of human anatomy in the first-year dissection laboratory by accomplished students: "physical" dissection using an embalmed cadaver and "digital" dissection using three-dimensional volume modeling of whole-body CT and MRI image sets acquired using the same cadaver. The goal was to understand the relative contributions each method makes toward student acquisition of intuitive sense of practical anatomical knowledge gained during "hands-on" structural exploration tasks. The main instruments for measuring anatomical knowledge under this conceptual model were questions generated using a classification system designed to assess both visual presentation manner and the corresponding response information required. Students were randomly divided into groups based on exploration method (physical or digital dissection) and then anatomical region. The physical dissectors proceeded with their direct methods, whereas the digital dissectors generated and manipulated indirect 3D digital models. After 6 weeks, corresponding student anatomical assignment teams compared their results using photography and animated digital visualizations. Finally, to see whether each method provided unique advantages, a visual test protocol of new visualizations based on the classification schema was administered. Results indicated that all students, regardless of gender, dissection method, and anatomical region dissected performed significantly better on questions presented as rotating models requiring spatial ordering or viewpoint determination responses in contrast to requests for specific lexical feature identifications. Additional results provided evidence of trends showing significant differences in gender and dissection method scores. These trends will be explored with further trials with larger populations.

A usability study of users' perceptions toward a multimedia computer-assisted learning tool for neuroanatomy.

Abstract: This usability study evaluated users' perceptions of a multimedia prototype for a new e-learning tool: Anatomy of the Central Nervous System: A Multimedia Course. Usability testing is a collection of formative evaluation methods that inform the developmental design of e-learning tools to maximize user acceptance, satisfaction, and adoption. Sixty-two study participants piloted the prototype and completed a usability questionnaire designed to measure two usability properties: program need and program applicability. Statistical analyses were used to test the hypothesis that the multimedia prototype was well designed and highly usable, it was perceived as: (1) highly needed across a spectrum of educational contexts, (2) highly applicable in supporting the pedagogical processes of teaching and learning neuroanatomy, and (3) was highly usable by all types of users. Three independent variables represented user differences: level of expertise (faculty vs. student), age, and gender. Analysis of the results supports the research hypotheses that the prototype was designed well for different types of users in various educational contexts and for supporting the pedagogy of neuroanatomy. In addition, the results suggest that the multimedia program will be most useful as a neuroanatomy review tool for health-professions students preparing for licensing or board exams. This study demonstrates the importance of integrating quality properties of usability with principles of human learning during the instructional design process for multimedia products. Anat Sci Ed 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

An ethical solution to the challenges in teaching anatomy with dissection in the Chinese culture.

Abstract: Universities and medical schools in China are faced with an ongoing shortage of cadavers for education and research because of insufficient numbers of cadaver donations. This article will examine the main obstacles to cadaver donation in the Chinese culture. These include superstitious traditional views about the body, a lack of legislation regulating donations, and a deficiency of effective channels for cadaver donations. Cadaver dissection has always been the most important method of teaching anatomy to medical students. Today, ethics courses have also become essential to a complete medical education. Contemporary physicians need to be equipped to navigate the myriad of moral and ethical issues inherent to modern medicine. In China, cadaver donations lag behind those in other countries, threatening to create valid disadvantages in medical education. New legislation and public education are necessary to remove cultural barriers and change Chinese views on cadaver donation. For this reason, the Department of Human Anatomy at Nanjing Medical University has established the “Educational Center for Medical Ethics.” The goal of the Center is to promote proper respect for cadavers used for medical research and education, cherish the human lives the cadavers represent, and gain the trust of potential donors. Anat Sci Ed 1:56–59, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Medical student retention of embryonic development: impact of the dimensions added by multimedia tutorials.

Abstract: The purpose of this project was to develop Web-based learning modules that combine (1) animated 3D graphics; (2) 3D models that a student can manipulate independently; (3) passage of time in embryonic development; and (4) animated 2D graphics, including 2D cross-sections that represent different “slices” of the embryo, and animate in parallel. These elements were presented in two tutorials, one depicting embryonic folding and the other showing development of the nervous system after neural tube formation. The goal was to enhance the traditional teaching format—lecture combined with printed diagrams, text, and existing computer animations—with customized, guided, Web-based learning modules that surpassed existing resources. To assess module effectiveness, we compared quiz performance of control groups who attended lecture and did not use a supporting module, with study groups who used a module in addition to attending lecture. We also assessed our students' long-term retention of the material, comparing classes who had used the module with students from a previous year that had not seen the module. Our data analysis suggests that students who used a module performed better than those given only traditional resources if they used the module after they were already somewhat familiar with the material. The findings suggest that our modules—and possibly computer-assisted-instruction modules in general—are more useful if used toward the later stages of learning, rather than as an initial resource. Furthermore, our data suggest that the animation aids in long-term retention. Both medical students at the University of Cincinnati and medical faculty from across the country commented favorably on their experiences with the embryonic development modules. Anat Sci Ed 1:252–257, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Interprofessional Education in Gross Anatomy: Experience with First-Year Medical and Physical Therapy Students at Mayo Clinic.

Abstract: Interprofessional education (IPE) in clinical practice is believed to improve outcomes in health care delivery. Integrating teaching and learning objectives through cross discipline student interaction in basic sciences has the potential to initiate interprofessional collaboration at the early stages of health care education. Student attitudes and effectiveness of IPE in the context of a combined gross anatomy course for first-year students in Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) and Doctor of Medicine (MD) degrees curricula were evaluated. Integrated teams of MD and DPT students participated in part of the gross anatomy dissection course at Mayo Medical School. A survey was administered to 42 MD and 28 DPT students that assessed their attitudes toward IPE and cooperation among health care professionals. Pre- and post-experience surveys were evaluated. Positive comments were related to opportunities for developing a better understanding of the nature and scope of each other's programs, encouraging teamwork and communication, mutual respect, and reducing the perceptual divide between disciplines. Ninety-two percent of the students agreed that interprofessional learning would help them in becoming a more effective member of the health care team. This initial experience with IPE in gross anatomy provides a basis for continued development of interdisciplinary educational strategies. Anat Sci Ed 1:258–263, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

The impact of interactive, computerized educational modules on preclinical medical education

Abstract: Interactive computerized modules have been linked to improved retention of material in clinical medicine. This study examined the effects of a new series of interactive learning modules for preclinical medical education, specifically in the areas of quiz performance, perceived difficulty of concepts, study time, and perceived stress level. We randomly allocated 102 medical student volunteers into control and experimental groups. All participants studied selected anatomical and physiologic concepts using existing material (lecture notes, textbooks, etc.), while those in the experimental groups used the new interactive modules as well. All participants completed a quiz to test their knowledge of the assigned concepts and a survey to assess their subjective experiences in studying with the modules. We found a trend toward higher quiz scores in the experimental group relative to the control group, though it did not reach statistical significance (P = 0.31). Perceived concept difficulty was significantly reduced among those who studied with the modules (P < 0.001), and the number of hours spent studying the concepts was significantly increased (P = 0.028). Of those who used the modules, 83% rated them as "very helpful" or "extremely helpful." No significant differences existed between participants' reported stress levels during the course of the study (P = 0.44). Our data suggest that medical students may learn more effectively and feel less intimidated by difficult concepts when interactive modules supplement traditional instruction.

Transforming clinical imaging data for virtual reality learning objects

Abstract: Advances in anatomical informatics, three-dimensional (3D) modeling, and virtual reality (VR) methods have made computer-based structural visualization a practical tool for education. In this article, the authors describe streamlined methods for producing VR “learning objects,” standardized interactive software modules for anatomical sciences education, from newer high-resolution clinical imaging systems data. The key program is OsiriX, a free radiological image processing workstation software capable of directly reformatting and rendering volumetric 3D images. The transformed image arrays are then directly loaded into a commercial VR program to produce a variety of learning objects. Multiple types or “dimensions” of anatomical information can be embedded in these objects to provide different kinds of functions, including interactive atlases, examination questions, and complex, multistructure presentations. The use of clinical imaging data and workstation software speeds up the production of VR simulations, compared with reconstruction-based modeling from segmented cadaver cross-sections, while providing useful examples of normal structural variation and pathological anatomy. Anat Sci Ed 1:50–55, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Giving ourselves: the ethics of anatomical donation.

Abstract: In some European countries, such as Italy, medical education is threatened by a dearth of anatomical specimens. Such a shortage could spread to other nations, including the United States. This article addresses two ethical questions in body donation. Why might people choose to donate their bodies to education and science? What sorts of ethical appeals might anatomists, physicians, and other health professionals make to patients and family members for anatomical donation? Two models of giving, egoistic and liberal, merit close examination.

Student attitudes to whole body donation are influenced by dissection

Abstract: Given the important role that anatomical dissection plays in the shaping of medical student attitudes to life and death, these attitudes have not been evaluated in the context of whole body donation for medical science. First year students of anatomy in an Irish university medical school were surveyed by questionnaire before and after the initial dissection and again after 9 weeks of anatomical dissection. Analysis of student responses to the idea of whole body donation by an unrelated stranger, a family member, or by the respondent showed that a priori attitudes to donation by a stranger did not change with exposure to dissection. However, student opposition to donation by a family member was evident immediately after the initial dissection and was sustained throughout the duration of this study. Support for the idea of donating their bodies to medical science decreased significantly among respondents after exposure to dissection (31.5% before dissection, 19.6% after dissecting for 9 weeks) but not to levels reported in the general population in other studies. This study demonstrates that where dissection forms a part of anatomy teaching, students expect to learn anatomy by dissecting donors whom they do not know. As a potential donor population, students are reluctant to become emotionally involved in the donation process and are unwilling to become donors themselves.

Anatomy: Spotlight on Africa

Abstract: Anatomy departments across Africa were surveyed regarding the type of curriculum and method of delivery of their medical courses. While the response rate was low, African anatomy departments appear to be in line with the rest of the world in that many have introduced problem based learning, have hours that are within the range of western medical schools and appear to be well resourced. Human body dissection is a constant and strong aspect of the majority of the courses surveyed. The staff to student ratio appears to be relatively high in Africa, but in many of the responding African institutions, there appears to be little difficulty in attracting suitable faculty (including those who are medically qualified) to teach anatomy. Retaining this faculty, in some cases, may be difficult because of a global demand for anatomy educators. Anat Sci Ed 1:111–118, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

The importance of exposure to human material in anatomical education: A philosophical perspective

Abstract: Despite reductions in the importance, time committed to, and status of anatomical education in modern medical curricula, anatomical knowledge remains a cornerstone of medicine and related professions. Anatomists are therefore presented with the challenge of delivering required levels of core anatomical knowledge in a reduced time-frame and with fewer resources. One common response to this problem is to reduce the time available for students to interact with human specimens (either via dissection or handling of prosected material). In some curricula, these sessions are replaced with didactic or problem-based approaches focussed on transmitting core anatomical concepts. Here, I propose that the adoption of philosophical principles concerning the relationship and differences between "direct experience" and "concept" provides a strong case in support of requiring students to gain significant exposure to human material. These insights support the hypothesis that direct experience of human material is required for "deep," rather than "superficial," understanding of anatomy.

A minimally invasive approach to undergraduate anatomy teaching.

Abstract: Anatomy is one of the cornerstones of medical education. Unfortunately, sufficient evidence has accumulated to suggest a worldwide decline in the resources and time allocated to its teaching. Integration of anatomy with clinical medicine has been frequently advocated as the solution to this academic crisis. Consequently, new ways of harnessing clinical relevance to the teaching of anatomy must be sought to make it applicable to contemporary clinical practice. Human cadavers have been used to teach laparoscopic skills to surgical trainees for some time. More recently, centers in the United States have piloted the use of minimally invasive techniques in the teaching of anatomy to undergraduates. We believe that the use of laparoscopy on human cadavers may also be used to complement the teaching of anatomy to United Kingdom and European medical students. This would not only familiarize students with the topography and morphology of human anatomy, but also with the concept of manipulating anatomical structures to achieve a clinical outcome. Other benefits include improved three-dimensional orientation, increased dexterity, and development team-working skills amongst students. A UK feasibility study is currently underway. Anat Sci Ed 1:46–47, 2008. © 2007 American Association of Anatomists.

Evaluation of small-group teaching in human gross anatomy in a Caribbean medical school.

Abstract: Although there are a number of medical schools in the Caribbean islands, very few reports have come out so far in the literature regarding the efficacy of small-group teaching in them. The introduction of small-group teaching in the gross anatomy laboratory one and a half years ago at St. Matthew's University (SMU) on Grand Cayman appears to have had a significant positive impact on the academic achievement of students in anatomy. This study surveyed the responses of the students to the small-group learning method in gross anatomy at SMU using a structured questionnaire. The results show that our students prefer this small-group learning method over a completely self-directed method in the gross anatomy lab because the study materials were carefully chosen and the study objectives were demonstrated by the resource person. However, teacher-centered teaching was deliberately avoided by fostering problem-solving skills in the anatomy lab sessions. Another aim of the small-group teaching at SMU was to develop the interpersonal and communication skills of the students, which are important in their later education and career.

Development of a synergistic case-based microanatomy curriculum.

Abstract: This paper discusses the development of an interactive approach to teaching and assessing a microanatomy curriculum in an innovative medical school program. As an alternative to lectures and labs, students are engaged in interactive seminars focused on discussion of clinical and research-based cases matched with normal histology and pathology slides. A virtual microscopic system is used rather than the traditional glass slide and light microscope. Evaluation of student performance consists of self-assessment board style questions, concept appraisal problems, and utilization of a portfolio system where the assessment pieces are continuously integrated as part of written formative and summative assessments. Anat Sci Ed 1:102–105, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

A New Paradigm for Teaching Histology Laboratories in Canada's First Distributed Medical School

Abstract: To address the critical problem of inadequate physician supply in rural British Columbia, The University of British Columbia (UBC) launched an innovative, expanded and distributed medical program in 2004–2005. Medical students engage in a common curriculum at three geographically distinct sites across B.C.: in Vancouver, Prince George and Victoria. The distribution of the core Histology course required a thorough revision of our instructional methodology. We here report our progress and address the question “How does one successfully distribute Histology teaching to remote sites while maintaining the highest of educational standards?” The experience at UBC points to three specific challenges in developing a distributed Histology curriculum: (i) ensuring equitable student access to high quality histological images, (ii) designing and implementing a reliable, state-of-the-art technological infrastructure that allows for real-time teaching and interactivity across geographically separate sites and (iii) ensuring continued student access to faculty content expertise. High quality images—available through any internet connection—are provided within a new virtual slide box library of 300 light microscopic and 190 electron microscopic images. Our technological needs are met through a robust and reliable videoconference system that allows for live, simultaneous communication of audio/visual materials across the three sites. This system also ensures student access to faculty content expertise during all didactic teaching sessions. Student examination results and surveys demonstrate that the distribution of our Histology curriculum has been successful. Anat Sci Ed 1:95–101, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

Effects of Instructional Strategies Using Cross Sections on the Recognition of Anatomical Structures in Correlated CT and MR Images

Abstract: This research is an effort to best utilize the interactive anatomical images for instructional purposes based on cognitive load theory. Three studies explored the differential effects of three computer-based instructional strategies that use anatomical cross-sections to enhance the interpretation of radiological images. These strategies include: (1) cross-sectional images of the head that can be superimposed on radiological images, (2) transparent highlighting of anatomical structures in radiological images, and (3) cross-sectional images of the head with radiological images presented side-by-side. Data collected included: (1) time spent on instruction and on solving test questions, (2) mental effort during instruction and test, and (3) students' performance to identify anatomical structures in radiological images. Participants were 28 freshmen medical students (15 males and 13 females) and 208 biology students (190 females and 18 males). All studies used posttest-only control group design, and the collected data were analyzed by either t test or ANOVA. In self-directed computer-based environments, the strategies that used cross sections to improve students' ability to recognize anatomic structures in radiological images showed no significant positive effects. However, when increasing the complexity of the instructional materials, cross-sectional images imposed a higher cognitive load, as indicated by higher investment of mental effort. There is not enough evidence to claim that the simultaneous combination of cross sections and radiological images has no effect on the identification of anatomical structures in radiological images for novices. Further research that control for students' learning and cognitive style is needed to reach an informative conclusion.

Computerized Grading of Anatomy Laboratory Practical Examinations

Abstract: At the Medical College of Wisconsin, a procedure was developed to allow computerized grading and grade reporting of laboratory practical examinations in the Clinical Human Anatomy course. At the start of the course, first year medical students were given four Lists of Structures. On these lists, numbered items were arranged alphabetically; the items were anatomical structures that could be tagged on a given lab practical examination. Each lab exam featured an anatomy laboratory component and a computer laboratory component. For the anatomy lab component, students moved from one question station to another at timed intervals and identified tagged anatomical structures. As students identified a tagged structure, they referred to a copy of the list (provided with their answer sheet) and wrote the number corresponding to the structure on their answer sheet. Immediately after the anatomy lab component, students were escorted to a computer instruction laboratory where they typed their answer numbers into a secured testing component of a learning management system that recorded their answers for automatic grading. After a brief review of examination scores and item analysis by faculty, exam scores were reported to students electronically. Adding this brief computer component to each lab exam greatly reduced faculty grading time, reduced grading errors and provided faster performance feedback for students without changing overall student performance.

Anatomists debate the value of a teaching credential

Abstract: Cleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, OhioFewer and fewer programs are training graduate students and postdoctoral fellows in theclassical anatomical disciplines. Nonetheless, there remains a need at all levels of clinicaland basic science education for skilled instructors of anatomy, histology, and embryology.Two sessions at the 2006 annual meeting of the American Association of Anatomists(AAA) explored whether a system of accreditation would benefit students, institutions,and training programs. Although the value of accreditation was controversial, three chal-lenges for the various anatomical societies emerged from these discussions: (1) To identifythe skills and knowledge that should be shared among all anatomists, and the more spe-cific skills and knowledge needed for the diverse settings in which anatomists work. (2)To address the historical inattention of institutions to the training of educators. (3) To de-velop strategies to lobby institutions and national organizations to support the trainingand work of educators in the anatomical sciences. One approach to meeting these chal-lenges would be to develop guidelines for training programs. These guidelines would helpgraduate students seek the training they need, provide institutions with a benchmark toassess or develop training programs, and provide the basis for focusing lobbying effortstargeted at institutions or existing accreditation bodies.

Self‐directed learning in gross human anatomy: Assessment outcomes and student perceptions

Abstract: Speech pathology students enrolled in a lecture-based gross human anatomy program completed two out of nine topics in self-directed mode. Student performance in quizzes was compared for the two modes, and the students completed questionnaires on their perceptions of the self-directed mode of delivery. Students performed as well in the first self-directed topic as they did in lecture-based material, but performance declined significantly on the second self-directed topic. Correlations showed that students who performed well in lecture-based topics also performed well on self-directed topics. The major issues that arose in the student questionnaires were primarily related to the amount of content in the topics and the length of time required for completion. We conclude that there is a strong need for appropriate design of distance education materials to reflect student perceptions of length, content, and time investment, and more importantly that there is a need to ensure extensive communication and support of students studying in distance education/self-directed modes for the first time. Anat Sci Ed 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.

The development of clinical reasoning skills: a major objective of the anatomy course.

Abstract: Traditional medical school curricula have made a clear demarcation between the basic biomedical sciences and the clinical years. It is our view that a comprehensive medical education necessarily involves an increased correlation between basic science knowledge and its clinical applications. A basic anatomy course should have two main objectives: for the student to successfully gain a solid knowledge base of human anatomy and to develop and hone clinical reasoning skills. In a basic anatomy course, clinical case discussions based on underlying anatomic anomalies or abnormalities are the major means to teach students clinical reasoning skills. By identifying, classifying, and analyzing the clinical data given, a student learns to methodically approach a clinical case and formulate plausible diagnoses. Practicing and perfecting clinical problem-solving skills should be a major objective of the anatomy curriculum. Such clinical reasoning skills are indeed crucial for the successful and expert practice of medicine. Anat Sci Ed 1:267–268, 2008. © 2008 American Association of Anatomists.