Showing papers in "British Journal of Psychology in 1989"
Journal Article•
TL;DR: A rating scale for drug-induced akathisia has been derived that incorporates diagnostic criteria for pseudoakathisio, and mild, moderate, and severe akath isia, and there is an item for rating global severity.
Abstract: A rating scale for drug-induced akathisia has been derived that incorporates diagnostic criteria for pseudoakathisia, and mild, moderate, and severe akathisia. It comprises items for rating the observable, restless movements which characterise the condition, the subjective awareness of restlessness, and any distress associated with the akathisia. In addition, there is an item for rating global severity. A standard examination procedure is recommended. The inter-rater reliability for the scale items (Cohen's kappa) ranged from 0.738 to 0.955. Akathisia was found in eight of 42 schizophrenic in-patients, and nine had pseudoakathisia, where the typical sense of inner restlessness was not reported.
1,942 citations
TL;DR: The results are largely consistent with the hypothesis that expertise is associated with greater use of configural information in faces, and a larger own race inversion effect was found for recognition accuracy.
Abstract: Diamond & Carey (1986) have argued that expertise in face recognition depends on the ability to code configural properties in addition to isolated features. We tested this hypothesis in two experiments by comparing the effect of inversion on recognition of 'own race' (high expertise) and 'other race' (low expertise) faces. Use of configural information should be associated with a larger inversion effect than use of isolated features, and therefore inversion should produce a larger recognition decrement for own race than for other race faces. In Expt 1 there was a larger inversion effect in reaction times for recognition of own race faces than other race faces, for both European and Chinese subjects (ceiling effects made interpretation of accuracy difficult). In Expt 2 a larger own race inversion effect was found for recognition accuracy, when test face pairs were randomly selected, but not when they were matched on isolated features. Our results are largely consistent with the hypothesis that expertise is associated with greater use of configural information in faces.
373 citations
TL;DR: The results support the hypothesis that text processing is influenced by working memory demands and suggest that children's comprehension is related to the efficiency of a general non-linguistic working memory system.
Abstract: This article examines possible working memory deficits in 7-8-year-olds who are accurate readers but relatively poor comprehenders. In Expt 1, poor comprehenders scored below good comprehenders on a non-linguistic test of working memory (reading series of digits and recalling the last digit in each series) on the more taxing items. Experiment 2 examined the relationship between working memory and text comprehension using an anomaly resolution task. Good and poor comprehenders heard stories describing an adult's anomalous emotional response to a child's action, some of which contained information to resolve the anomaly. The load on working memory imposed by the need to integrate the resolution with the anomaly was varied in two ways: the resolution was presented immediately next to, or two sentences distant from, the anomaly, and appeared either before or after the anomaly. Poor comprehenders were worse than good ones at anomaly resolution only when the anomalous and resolving information were separated. The results support the hypothesis that text processing is influenced by working memory demands and suggest that children's comprehension is related to the efficiency of a general non-linguistic working memory system.
288 citations
TL;DR: Although these six scales showed satisfactory internal consistency they failed to link up into the three major systems suggested by Gray's personality theory, this raises questions as to how the neurological systems of activation, inhibition and fight/flight are related to human personality structure.
Abstract: The development of the Gray-Wilson Personality Questionnaire is described; this is an instrument designed to measure human equivalents of six animal behaviour paradigms--Approach, Active Avoidance, Passive Avoidance, Extinction, Fight and Flight. Although these six scales showed satisfactory internal consistency they failed to link up into the three major systems suggested by Gray's personality theory. The strongest associations were between Fight and Approach and between Flight and Passive Avoidance. This raises questions as to how the neurological systems of activation, inhibition and fight/flight are related to human personality structure.
131 citations
TL;DR: Older children were superior to younger on both free and prompted recall of event and appearance information and made fewer errors, both relatively and absolutely, on recall of appearance but not events.
Abstract: A total of 128 children from each of two age groups (6-7 years and 10-11 years) took part individually in a simulated health check procedure. This involved direct confrontation between the child and an adult stranger in which the child was touched and an article of clothing (shoes) removed. One week later children took part in a series of tests which examined their testimony of the events in which they participated. Older children were superior to younger on both free and prompted recall of event and appearance information and made fewer errors, both relatively and absolutely, on recall of appearance but not events. The two age groups did not differ in their competence in the construction of Photofit pictures and showed no difference in performance on identification from a photographic array, irrespective of whether the adult was present or absent. The implications of these findings for the current debate over the legal admissibility of children's evidence are discussed.
105 citations
TL;DR: This paper used the Stroop test to distinguish individuals with a repressive "coping" style from low and high anxious persons, and identified the three groups by use of the Marlowe-Crowne scale of social desirability and the Spielberger Trait Anxiety scale.
Abstract: The study reported here used the Stroop test in order to distinguish individuals with a repressive ‘coping’ style from low and high anxious persons. The task required the colour naming of words relating to negative emotions. The three groups were identified by use of the Marlowe-Crowne scale of social desirability and the Spielberger Trait Anxiety scale. As predicted, the task clearly distinguished between repressors and the low anxious: repressors were severely retarded on this task while the low anxious showed no effect on performance. However, the distinction between repressors and the high anxious was less clear. The anxious group also showed a decrement in performance although it was considerably smaller than that produced by repressors. These results are discussed in terms of the implications for the applicability of the test as a measure of repressive coping style.
95 citations
TL;DR: The most parsimonious explanation of the present findings is that any excess of left-handers in these sports is due to the nature of the game and not to any supposed neurological advantage.
Abstract: The study reported here examined whether left-handedness is an intrinsic advantage in three sports: cricket, tennis, and football (soccer). An analysis of cricket yearbooks showed that over the last four decades there was a relatively high proportion of professional cricketers who bowled left-handed. In contrast, an analysis of handedness in top batsman, as measured by bowling hand, failed to find any evidence of a handedness effect. Similarly, there was no clear, consistent excess of left-handed players among an overall sample of 500 male or 252 female professional tennis players or among 167 professional football goalkeepers. The latter group were of particular interest as left-handed goalkeepers are not tactically favoured by their relative rarity or by the symmetry of the sport. The most parsimonious explanation of the present findings is that any excess of left-handers in these sports is due to the nature of the game and not to any supposed neurological advantage.
94 citations
TL;DR: Strong dextrality is associated with weak left-hand skill, not good right- hand skill, in accord with the hypothesis that the costs of RS are to the right hemisphere, and for their implications for theories of hemisphere specialization.
Abstract: The right shift (RS) theory of handedness suggests that the human bias to dextrality has costs as well as benefits. Samples of children from six primary schools were individually tested for hand preference, hand skill and Raven's Matrices. Scores on standardized educational tests recently given by teachers were available for three schools. When children were stratified for ability, the distributions of hand preference and of right minus left (R-L) hand skill were as expected if extent of RS is inversely related to ability. When children were classified for R-L score, the most strongly dextral children were poorer than all others for Matrices, English and several other tests. The trend for ability to decline from left to right across the laterality continuum was consistent for all scores available. Strong dextrality is associated with weak left-hand skill, not good right-hand skill, in accord with the hypothesis that the costs of RS are to the right hemisphere. The findings and their interpretation are discussed in comparison with Geschwind's theory of developmental pathology, and for their implications for theories of hemisphere specialization.
92 citations
TL;DR: The authors investigated some of the determinants of homesickness and reactions to homeickness in two samples of first-year English psychology students who had left home for the first time and found that women were more likely to discuss their feelings with others and to respond by being more affiliative.
Abstract: This study investigated some of the determinants of homesickness and reactions to homesickness in two samples of first-year English psychology students who had left home for the first time. Homesickness was found to be a reasonably common but short-lived phenomenon, and was predicted longitudinally by greater self-reported dependency on other people and by higher estimates of the frequency of homesickness among students in general. Although homesickness was equally common in men and women, women were much more likely to discuss their feelings with others and to respond by being more affiliative. Greater anxiety and depression about homesickness were also associated with more confiding behaviour. There was a suggestion that homesick male students were more likely to seek out others, the more common they perceived homesickness to be.
89 citations
TL;DR: The results showed that the amplitude of the circadian component of the psychological data increased over the period of sleep loss, and psychological data were more highly correlated with a measure of general performance than with accuracy.
Abstract: A study was conducted on the effects of 72 hours of sleep loss and modified continuous operations on performance and psychological variables. This paper presents the results of self-report data of 12 subjects for the following psychological variables: sleepiness, affect, motivation, cognitive difficulties, and waking dreams. The relationship between the self-report measures and performance in a visual search and memory task is also examined. Most of the psychological variables are significantly affected by the number of days of sleep deprivation, all are significantly affected by hour of day; but only sleepiness, affect and motivation are also significantly affected by the interaction between these variables. The peak hours for self-reported psychological complaints are generally between 0400 and 0800, while the lowest number of complaints are usually reported in the afternoon/early evening, between 1600 and 2000. In addition, the results showed that (a) the amplitude of the circadian component of the psychological data increased over the period of sleep loss, and (b) psychological data were more highly correlated with a measure of general performance than with accuracy. The mechanisms of sleep deprivation underlying its effects on psychological and performance measures are discussed.
88 citations
TL;DR: Observed developmental trends in both legal vocabulary and conceptual appreciation of criminal law replicates previous work from Australia and America and supports the contention that children younger than 10 years are not well informed about the legal system.
Abstract: This paper describes a study of children's legal vocabulary and their knowledge of criminal court procedures. Subjects (aged six, eight, 10 years and adults) were also asked about their feelings regarding a hypothetical court appearance as a witness. All subjects, children and adults, performed best on a vocabulary recognition section, with descriptions and concepts proving more difficult. Observed developmental trends in both legal vocabulary and conceptual appreciation of criminal law replicates previous work from Australia and America and supports the contention that children younger than 10 years are not well informed about the legal system. Results indicated clear deficits in knowledge as well as frequent misconceptions regarding legal personnel and procedures.
TL;DR: It is argued that typographic features of words are able to access a semantic code and that this code can interact with the derivation of a linguistic code specifying a word's meaning and/or with post-lexical access decision processes.
Abstract: The research reported here comprises an empirical investigation of the phenomenon of typographic allusion. In a preliminary study, subjects rated the perceptual qualities possessed by different typefaces (e.g. heavy-light, fast-slow). The results indicated that subjects agreed as to typeface characteristics and that typefaces were distinguished by such qualities. In Expt 1, subjects undertook a speeded decision task in which they responded according to which one of four adjectives appeared tachistoscopically. Each word appeared in a typeface whose qualities were either consistent or inconsistent with its meaning. Reaction times for inconsistent stimuli were significantly slower than those for consistent trials. In preparation for Expt 2, the same rating procedure was used to elicit subjects' judgements of the attributes of different animals. Subjects agreed as to animals' qualities and such qualities reliably distinguished between the animals. The names of these animals were then used as targets in a binary decision task and each one appeared in a typeface possessing qualities which were either congruent or incongruent with those of the animal. Subjects responded according to whether they considered the animal presented on each trial to be heavy or light, or fast or slow moving. Responses on trials in which the animal and typeface possessed conflicting attributes were significantly slower than responses when animal and typeface qualities were congruent. These results are discussed in relation to current views regarding the processing of written English. We argue that typographic features of words are able to access a semantic code and that this code can interact with the derivation of a linguistic code specifying a word's meaning and/or with post-lexical access decision processes.
TL;DR: A theory of causal processing is proposed in this article, which is based on the notion that people understand the causal connection as a generative relation representing the operation of a causal power of some thing under some appropriate releasing condition.
Abstract: A theory of causal processing is proposed. The theory is based on the notion that people understand the causal connection as a generative relation representing the operation of a causal power of some thing under some appropriate releasing condition. Much causal processing is automatic and involves the perception of apparent generative relations with the aid of this basic concept and more particular beliefs about the causal powers of the things involved. Controlled causal processing occurs when automatic causal processing cannot and when its occurrence is in the interest of some practical concern. This also involves identifying some causal power or releasing condition that is already believed to be a possible cause of the effect in question. The origins and development of this way of understanding causation are briefly discussed. The preferred method of testing ideas about possible causes involves gathering more information about the occasion in question, not sampling other occasions, as in covariation-based models. Evidence supporting this contention is reported. Application of this basic theory in particular domains of knowledge is briefly discussed.
TL;DR: The authors found that articulatory suppression had a greater detrimental effect on span for high- than for low-frequency words, while maintaining words from either early or late serial positions by articulatory rehearsal.
Abstract: Watkins (1977) found memory span was longer when first and second halves of lists contained high- and low-frequency words, respectively, than when low-frequency words preceded high. One of the four experiments reported here failed to replicate this finding and found that articulatory suppression had a greater detrimental effect on span for high- than for low-frequency words. Another experiment showed that high-frequency words similar to those used by Watkins were easier to articulate than low-frequency words. In the third experiment articulatory suppression did not differentially affect delayed recall of high- and low-frequency words. The fourth experiment showed span for high- and low-frequency words was influenced in a similar way when encouraging subjects to maintain words from either early or late serial positions by articulatory rehearsal. It is concluded that differences in the strategies adopted to maintain words in the articulatory rehearsal loop can account for inconsistencies in the results obtained here and in previous experiments.
TL;DR: It is shown that imperfect correlations between proficiency and preference measures, and J-shaped distributions of preference, can be predicted by a model, and the facts about hand preference and proficiency do not go against the view that preference is determined by proficiency.
Abstract: There is debate in the handedness literature over proficiency and preference measures are indicators of common underlying factors, or separate dimensions of behavior with different causes. It has been argued that hand preference has different origins from hand proficiency on the grounds that (i) the two types of measure are imperfectly correlated and (ii) distributions of relative hand proficiency are normal or nearly so, whereas distributions of hand preference are J-shaped. A model is described in which the probability that one hand will be preferred for a given activity is directly proportional to the relative proficiency of the two sides, the latter being normally distributed. It is shown that imperfect correlations between proficiency and preference measures, and J-shaped distributions of preference, can be predicted by such a model. These facts about hand preference and proficiency do not, therefore, go against the view that preference is determined by proficiency.
TL;DR: Investigating spelling of words and non-words in cerebral palsied individuals, including speechless (anarthric) as well as dysarthric subjects, concludes that spelling by the 'indirect' route can be achieved in the absence of any articulation.
Abstract: Previous work has shown that children with motor speech disorders (dysarthria) have no particular difficulty in spelling non-words containing sounds that they cannot produce accurately in their own speech. This suggests that subvocal articulation is not implicated in generating a graphemic representation from a phonological string. However, it could be argued that, although severely unintelligible, dysarthric individuals may be able to use their own articulation as a basis for translating between phonemes and graphemes. In this study we investigated spelling of words and non-words in cerebral palsied individuals, including speechless (anarthric) as well as dysarthric subjects. Although spelling abilities of these individuals were below control levels, there was no evidence that different processes were used, and one anarthric individual achieved perfect performance in spelling a list of non-words which included consonant clusters. It is concluded that spelling by the 'indirect' route can be achieved in the absence of any articulation.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of the activation of pragmatic schemas on children's reasoning performance are reported. But their results were limited to a restricted version of Wason's selection task.
Abstract: Three experiments exploring the effects of the activation of pragmatic schemas on children's reasoning performance are reported. Pragmatic schemas are defined as clusters of rules concerning actions and goals. Previous results indicated that by evoking ‘permission’ and ‘obligation’ schemas it is possible to facilitate adults' performance on Wason's selection task as well as that of children in a ‘reduced’ version of the same task. Experiment 1 demonstrated that both 9-10- and 14-15-year-olds (n = 160) could produce a high rate of correct performance in the complete version of the task, both when phrased in terms of a familiar permission and of an explicitly rationalized non-familiar permission. Experiment 2 (n = 40) and 3 (n = 48) demonstrated that 10-year-olds could solve the task even when the permission rule was not familiar and was plausible only in virtue of the availability of an implicit rationale. Developmental and general aspects of these results are briefly discussed.
TL;DR: The memory organization of six autistic mnemonists was investigated and provided some evidence that the material of special interest to the subjects, in the present instance bus numbers, was stored in memory in a categorized form.
Abstract: The memory organization of six autistic mnemonists was investigated in two experiments. The first of these provided some evidence that the material of special interest to the subjects, in the present instance bus numbers, was stored in memory in a categorized form. The second study showed that though the idiot-savant mnemonists did not differ from controls in the level of their general memory performance, the factor structure of a number of memory tests differed between the groups. In contrast to the controls, a verbal memory factor which seemed independent of measured verbal IQ was operative in the mnemonist subjects.
TL;DR: The spaced-practice effect refers to the strong and pervasive positive influence on long-term explicit memory which results from interposing at least one other item between the repetitions of any to-be-remembered item in a list-learning paradigm as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The spaced-practice effect refers to the strong and pervasive positive influence on long-term explicit memory which results from interposing at least one other item between the repetitions of any to-be-remembered item in a list-learning paradigm. Limited prior empirical evidence suggests that spaced practice could also have a similar positive effect on implicit memory performances, as revealed through a tachistoscopic identification task.
Four experiments involving another implicit memory task, namely a perceptual clarification procedure, were conducted to test for the effect of spaced practice with greater methodological control than previously used. Low-frequency words were displayed to subjects under a variety of conditions including incidental (Expts 1 and 2) and intentional (Expts 3 and 4) learning instructions. Although spacing regulated to a large extent the performances in subsequent free recall (Expt 2) or recognition (Expts 1, 3, 4) control tasks, the advantage of spaced over massed items in the perceptual clarification procedure was always small in magnitude, and only reached significance in the last experiment. Overall analysis of the data shows with a reasonably high degree of certitude that spaced practice exerts a real but probably slight and fluctuating effect upon implicit memory performance.
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of concurrent verbalization and graphical representations on implicit learning was investigated and it was shown that when both these aids are available to the subjects, the effects of one may be masked by the effects from the other.
Abstract: Two experiments are described based on a dynamic systems control task previously shown to favour implicit learning. Subjects asked to verbalize their reasoning whilst performing the task showed significantly improved task performance. This result is in line with suggestions that concurrent verbalization may facilitate task performance. Presentation of graphical information representing the behaviour of the system also aids learning. Both concurrent verbalization and graphical representations probably have the effect of increasing the efficiency with which the available task information is assimilated. When both these aids are available to subjects, the effects of one may be masked by the effects of the other. This would account for the results of previous studies in which no effect of concurrent verbalization has been found. After relatively few exchanges with the system some subjects appear to be developing verbal task knowledge; this may represent the initial stages in the development of a mental model of the system.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of rewarding and punishing verbal reinforcers on verbal operant conditioning as a function of extraversion-introversion were investigated, and the results showed that extraverts compared to introverts and ambiverts condition better with the rewarding reinforcer compared to the punishing one.
Abstract: The present investigation was designed to study the effects of rewarding and punishing verbal reinforcers on verbal operant conditioning as a function of extraversion-introversion. A randomized block design involving three levels of extraversion (extraverts, ambiverts and introverts) and two verbal reinforcement conditions (‘good’ and ‘poor’), was replicated 20 times. One hundred and twenty undergraduate and postgraduate female students were individually subjected to Taffel's verbal conditioning procedure. The study supports the following conclusions: (1) extraverts as compared to introverts and ambiverts condition better with the rewarding reinforcer (‘good’) while the introverts compared to extraverts and ambiverts condition better with the punishing reinforcer (‘poor’); (2) extraverts condition better with the rewarding reinforcer compared to the punishing one, whereas the introverts condition better with the punishing reinforcer compared to the rewarding one; (3) ambiverts condition comparably with both the rewarding and punishing reinforcers.
TL;DR: The experiment reported here used different views of familiar and unfamiliar faces as stimuli in a serial choice reaction-time task and found that, with identical pictures, repetition priming survives and intervening item requiring a response, with both familiar and familiar faces.
Abstract: Marshall & Walker (1987) found that pictorial stimuli yield visual priming that is disrupted by an unpredictable visual event in the response-stimulus interval. They argue that visual stimuli are represented in memory in the form of distinct visual and object codes. Bruce & Young (1986) propose similar pictorial, structural and semantic codes which mediate the recognition of faces, yet repetition priming results obtained with faces as stimuli (Bruce & Valentine, 1985), and with objects (Warren & Morton, 1982) are quite different from those of Marshall & Walker (1987), in the sense that recognition is facilitated by pictures presented 20 minutes earlier.
The experiment reported here used different views of familiar and unfamiliar faces as stimuli in a serial choice reaction-time task and found that, with identical pictures, repetition priming survives an intervening item requiring a response, with both familiar and unfamiliar faces. Furthermore, with familiar faces such priming was present even when the view of the prime was different from the target. The theoretical implications of these results are discussed.
TL;DR: For instance, this paper found that gender was strongly related to beliefs about others' memory performance and weakly related to one's own performance, while both genders agreed that men were better at some tasks (e.g. directions) and women are better at others, but showed no consistent tendency to view themselves in terms of the beliefs they held about others of their gender.
Abstract: Beliefs about subjects’ own memory performances and about the memory performances of others were studied as a function of gender in two experiments. Both experiments used adaptations of the Inventory of Memory Experiences (IME) that employed somewhat different response scales. The first experiment used a small sample, heterogeneous with respect to age; the second used a large homogeneous sample of college students. In both experiments, gender was strongly related to beliefs about others’ memory performance and weakly related to beliefs about one's own performance. Female and male subjects agreed that men are better at some tasks (e.g. directions) and women are better at others (e.g. shopping lists), but showed no consistent tendency to view themselves in terms of the beliefs they held about others of their gender. These results imply that behaviours based on beliefs about the memory performance of women and men may be gender biased when directed towards others.
TL;DR: The authors showed that the errors in copying line drawings of a table are directly related to the knowledge that the lines represent a table, and not to difficulty in drawing the lines themselves, and that the pattern of error is very similar to that obtained when the whole line drawing is copied or when a table is drawn from imagination.
Abstract: A series of studies shows that errors in copying line drawings of a table are directly related to the knowledge that the lines represent a table, and not to difficulty in drawing the lines themselves. When children copy the component parts of line drawings of a table the pattern of error is very similar to that obtained when the whole line drawing is copied or when a table is drawn from imagination. When the same component parts are copied without the knowledge of what they represent very few errors are made.
TL;DR: This paper showed that priming in word fragment completion was enhanced for words that had been generated at study, from the same fragments as those used at test, rather than read because subjects were unaware that any memory test occurred, this generation effect in primed fragment completion does not depend on conscious recollection.
Abstract: Priming refers to the facilitatory effects of a prior experience on the performance of some cognitive task or skill In a word-fragment completion task, priming is shown if words from a previously presented study list are more likely to be completed than other words An experiment is described which shows that priming in word-fragment completion was enhanced for words that had been generated at study, from the same fragments as those used at test, rather than read Because subjects were unaware that any memory test occurred, this generation effect in primed fragment completion does not depend on conscious recollection It is argued that the effect arises in some memory system other than episodic memory, and reflects data-driven rather than conceptually driven processing
TL;DR: The results partially confirm earlier studies comparing subjects with and without musical training, and extend them by demonstrating a clear relationship between ear advantage and a separate measure of processing strategy, and support clearly the hypothesis that differences in ear asymmetry are produced through the use of different processing strategies.
Abstract: The relationship between processing strategy and ear asymmetry was examined in two experiments in which subjects were required to make judgements about monoaurally presented musical chords. In the first experiment, subjects without musical training showed a significant left ear advantage while in those with musical training a significant shift towards a right ear advantage was observed. Performance on the Embedded Figures Test (EFT) suggested a strong relationship between analytic processing style and right ear advantage which was significant in the musician groups. The effect of musical training status on ear asymmetry continued to be significant when the scores were adjusted for analytic processing. There was also a clear relationship between self-reported listening strategies and direction of ear asymmetry, with musicians generally reporting a much greater use of analytic strategies. The second experiment failed to demonstrate a significant influence of explicit instructions in how to carry out a chords task on the direction of ear advantages in musically untrained subjects. The results partially confirm earlier studies comparing subjects with and without musical training, and extend them by demonstrating a clear relationship between ear advantage and a separate measure of processing strategy. The findings of the second experiment, however, do not support clearly the hypothesis that differences in ear asymmetry are produced through the use of different processing strategies.
TL;DR: It was concluded that spatial monitoring depletes resources that can be used to encode visually presented consonants and these resources may be drawn from spatial working memory.
Abstract: Three experiments examined the role of spatial monitoring in short-term visual memory. In the first experiment it was found that with consonants presented visually at one location articulatory suppression but not a concurrent tracking task disrupted performance. Experiment 2 demonstrated that tracking was disruptive when consonants were presented at three locations and more serial positions were affected when the locations of the consonants were random rather than highly predictable. Articulatory suppression was also disruptive in this study. The third experiment replicated the first two studies, without an articulatory suppression condition, using a within-subject design with a strictly forward serial recall constraint. The locus of the tracking effect was modified by this recall constraint suggesting that tracking disrupts a specific process that utilizes spatial monitoring. It was concluded that spatial monitoring depletes resources that can be used to encode visually presented consonants and these resources may be drawn from spatial working memory. The articulatory loop was also implicated given that articulatory suppression also disrupted performance. These results were explained in terms of working memory constellations. Morris (1986 b) suggested that such constellations consist of working memory components, in this instance the articulatory loop and spatial working memory, ‘assembled’ to meet task demands. This probably involves the activation, by the demand characteristics of the task, of modules in working memory that are similar to production system elements.
TL;DR: This paper found evidence for report accuracy attributable to information about internal events between stimulus and response, but theoretical implications remain unclear, and they did not investigate the effect of internal events on report accuracy.
Abstract: There are many sources of information that people can use to improve the accuracy of reports about causal relationships between stimuli and their own responses. Several experiments have been carried out to discover whether internal events between stimulus and response might be one of these, but none has so far succeeded in controlling for all other possible sources of accurate report. A study is reported here in which an attempt was made to achieve this by comparing a group of subjects making reports immediately after some response with a group making reports after a substantial delay. Evidence for report accuracy attributable to information about internal events between stimulus and response was found. Theoretical implications remain unclear, however.
TL;DR: It is concluded that for these deaf youngsters the phonological representation of written consonants is less secure for speech sounds that are hard, rather than easy, to lipread.
Abstract: Immediate recall of written lists was compared in strictly orally trained born-deaf teenagers and in hearing controls. The lists were of syllables of CV form (e.g. SHA NA ZA DA). The deaf subjects showed a significant effect of consonant 'lipreadability'. Syllable lists containing consonants like D, SH and Z whose place of articulation is not visibly distinctive and which are therefore hard to lipread are less well recalled than (phonetically and orthographically matched) syllable lists containing consonants like F, TH and B which are produced with the tongue, teeth and lips in visible configuration. We conclude that for these deaf youngsters the phonological representation of written consonants is less secure for speech sounds that are hard, rather than easy, to lipread. The oral training of these youngsters has had an effect on their internal representation of written speech. Hearing subjects showed no 'lipreadability' effect in their recall of these lists. Reading-age matched controls (aged 8-10 years) showed significantly shorter span for both list types than the deaf group. Older hearing controls (14-16 years) matched the deaf group in span and tended to recall most accurately written syllables which are not easily lipread. We discuss these comparisons and conclude that while this group of deaf subjects is using a phonological code in the recall of written syllables, it is qualitatively different from that used by hearing subjects in this task. In particular, not only hard-to-lipread consonants but also vowels may be less strongly represented in these deaf readers' 'inner voice'.
TL;DR: The theory that shared family environment has an effect on intelligence but no effect on personality was examined by a study of correlations between young adolescent Irish siblings for intelligence, neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism, which confirms the operation of both genetic and shared family effects on intelligence.
Abstract: The theory that shared family environment has an effect on intelligence but no effect on personality was examined by a study of correlations between young adolescent Irish siblings for intelligence, neuroticism, extraversion and psychoticism. The correlations obtained for 386 sibling pairs were 0.48 (intelligence), 0.06 (neuroticism), 0.31 (extraversion) and 0.14 (psychoticism). The correlation for IQ confirms the operation of both genetic and shared family effects on intelligence. The low correlations for neuroticism and psychoticism confirm the thesis that shared family effects have no influence on these traits. They are also inconsistent with an additive genetic model and suggest that non-additive genetic mechanisms are present to make siblings so dissimilar. The higher sibling correlation for extraversion suggests that shared family environment does have some effect on this trait among young adolescents and is also consistent with an additive genetic model.