Showing papers in "Child Development Perspectives in 2009"

Response to Intervention: Preventing and Remediating Academic Difficulties

Abstract: We address the advantages and challenges of service delivery models based on student response to intervention (RTI) for preventing and remediating academic difficulties and as data sources for identification for special education services The primary goal of RTI models is improved academic and behavioral outcomes for all students We review evidence for the processes underlying RTI, including screening and progress monitoring assessments, evidence-based interventions, and schoolwide coordination of multitiered instruction We also discuss the secondary goal of RTI, which is to provide data for identification of learning disabilities (LDs) Incorporating instructional response into identification represents a controversial shift away from discrepancies in cognitive skills that have traditionally been a primary basis for LD identification RTI processes potentially integrate general and special education and suggest new directions for research and public policy related to LDs, but the scaling issues in schools are significant and more research is needed on the use of RTI data for identification

Issues and Challenges in Studying Parental Control: Toward a New Conceptualization

Abstract: — Although investigators have long considered parents’ exertion of control over children as a central part of the socialization process, the study of control has been marked by conceptual and empirical confusion. This article outlines some of the history of the construct of control in the context of parenting, delineating the development of the contemporary approach that distinguishes among multiple forms of control. It proposes a refinement of this approach such that only parenting characterized by pressure, intrusion, and domination should be considered control, whereas parenting frequently labeled control but characterized mainly by guidance should be considered structure. This article highlights the benefits of distinguishing between these two dimensions of parenting rather than multiple forms of control.

Maternal Depression: A Global Threat to Children’s Health, Development, and Behavior and to Human Rights

Abstract: Depressive disorders are a common source of disability among women. In addition to the economic and human costs of maternal depression, children of depressed mothers are at risk for health, developmental, and behavioral problems. Although most of the research examining the evidence and inter-generational aspects of maternal depression has been conducted in high-income countries, recent evidence suggests that rates of maternal depression may be higher in low- and middle-income countries, where nearly 90% of the world's children live. This review examines the evidence from low- and middle-income countries that links maternal depression with children's health, development, and behavior. We present recommendations for future policies and intervention programs related to maternal depression and examine how maternal depression affects the rights of millions of children living in these countries.

“Concrete” Computer Manipulatives in Mathematics Education

Abstract: — The use of “concrete manipulatives” in mathematics education is supported by research and often accepted as a sine qua non of “reform” approaches. This article reviews the research on the use of manipulatives and critiques common notions regarding concrete manipulatives. It presents a reformulation of the definition of concrete as used in educational psychology and educational research and provides a rationale of how, based on that reformulation, computer manipulatives may be pedagogically efficacious. The article presents 7 hypothesized, interrelated affordances of manipulatives and briefly reviews evidence for their empirical validity.

Effective Curriculum-Based Sex and STD/HIV Education Programs for Adolescents

Abstract: —High rates of teen pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease (STD) are important problems in the United States. Curriculum-based sex and STD/HIV education programs have been proffered as a partial solution. This article reviews evaluations of the impact of such programs that met specified criteria and finds that about two thirds of programs had a significant impact on behavior. The proportion having a negative impact was less than expected by chance. Those having a positive impact had such effects as delaying the initiation of sex, reducing the frequency of sex or the number of sexual partners, and increasing the use of condoms or other contraceptive methods. Positive findings were robust across different groups of youth and replication of programs in different locations. Programs with 17 specific characteristics were much more likely to be effective than programs without these characteristics. These programs alone cannot dramatically reduce teen pregnancy and STD, but they can contribute to the reduction of those problems.

Short arms and talking eggs: Why we should no longer abide the nativist-empiricist debate

Abstract: The nativist-empiricis td ebate and the nativist commitment to the idea of core knowledge and endow- ments that exist without relevant postnatal experience continue to distract attention from the reality of develop- mental systems. The developmental systems approach embraces the concept of epigenesis, that is, the view that development emerges via cascades of interactions across multiple levels of causation, from genes to environments. This view is rooted in a broader interpretation of experi- ence and an appreciation for the nonobvious nature of development. This systems approach is illustrated here with examples from studies of imprinting, spatial cogni- tion, and language development, revealing the inadequa- cies of the nativist-empiricist debate and the inconvenient truths of development. Developmental scientists should no longer abide the nativist-empiricist debate and nativists' ungrounded focus on origins. Rather, the future lies in grounding science in contemporary theory and develop- mental process.

Treatment and Prevention of Posttraumatic Stress Reactions in Children and Adolescents Exposed to Disasters and Terrorism: What Is the Evidence?

Abstract: Youth who are exposed to devastating natural disasters or terrorist attacks report high levels of posttraumatic stress (PTS) and may develop posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). This article summarizes evidence on the treatment of PTS reactions in these youth and describes interventions developed for the immediate aftermath of the event, the short-term recovery and rebuilding phase, or the long-term recovery phase. Psychological first aid and evidence-based psychoeducational materials show promise for the early phases of postdisaster recovery. For youth with persistent PTSD, cognitive-behavioral interventions appear promising but require further study. Children and adolescents exposed to disasters and acts of terrorism may need multicomponent interventions because their reactions are often multifaceted and often include other psychological problems.

Improving the Numerical Understanding of Children From Low-Income Families

Abstract: — Children from low-income backgrounds enter school with much less mathematical knowledge than their more affluent peers. These early deficits have long-term consequences; children who start behind generally stay behind. This article describes how a theoretical analysis of the development of number sense gave rise to an intervention that reduces this gap by producing large, rapid, and broad improvements in the mathematical competence of low-income preschoolers. Roughly, an hour of playing a simple, inexpensive, linear number board game produces gains in numerical magnitude comparison, number line estimation, counting, and numeral identification. Reasons for these large gains are discussed.

The Concept of Development in Developmental Psychopathology

Abstract: So important is the perspective of development for understanding psychopathology that it spawned a new discipline-"developmental psychopathology"-which has seen remarkable advances since its introduction,, but has yet to completely fulfill its promise. To do this requires maintaining a thoroughgoing developmental perspective. When we take development seriously, there are implications for how we understand psychopathology, describe and conceptualize the origins and course of disorder, and interpret research findings. From this perspective, disorders are complex products of development; for example, we can view neurophysiological associates of disorder not as causes but as markers, the development of which we need to understand. Research on developmental psychopathology requires an examination of the history of problem behavior from early in life, and it unites multiple features of adaptation and maladaptation (contextual, experiential, physiological, and genetic).

Dual Representation and the Linking of Concrete and Symbolic Representations

Abstract: As the articles in this special issue suggest, link- ing concrete and abstract representations remains a fun- damentally important challenge of cognition development and education research. This issue is considered from the perspective of the dual-representation hypothesis—all symbols are simultaneously objects in their own right and representations of something else—which can shed light on the challenges of linking concrete and symbolic repre- sentations. Manipulations that lead children to focus on the object properties may actually make it harder for them to focus on what the symbols represent. Conversely, decreasing children's attention to the object's properties can make it easier for them to establish a link between concrete and symbolic. The educational implications of the dual-representation hypothesis are considered. KEYWORDS—symbols; transfer; mathematics; representa- tion; manipulatives

Research and Policy on Children's Play

Abstract: The role of play in human development is a source of controversy. Some view it as indispensable to children's healthy development and education, whereas others marginalize it as a topic unworthy of study and of questionable functional significance. This article suggests that differences in how researchers define play and conceptualize function have led to this disagreement. It also makes educational policy and research recommendations about the role of play in children's lives.

The Response to Intervention Instructional Model: Some Outcomes From a Large-Scale Implementation in Reading First Schools

Abstract: —The Reading First program in Florida has attempted to implement the response to intervention instructional model in a large number of schools. This has involved (a) increasing the quality of classroom instruction, (b) monitoring student response to instruction with frequently administered progress monitoring measures, and (c) providing tailored interventions to students who are not making adequate progress. Over 3 years of implementation in 318 schools, rates of identification of students with learning disabilities (LDs) have dropped dramatically. Percentages of students who actually have serious reading difficulties have also dropped during this period, although not as dramatically as for rates of LD identification. It is possible that LD identification rates in Grades K–3 are lower because teachers and schools are exploring other intervention options before referring for special education. Implications of this possibility for timeliness of LD diagnosis are discussed.

Transfer of Mathematical Knowledge: The Portability of Generic Instantiations

Abstract: — Mathematical concepts are often difficult to acquire. This difficulty is evidenced by failure of knowledge to transfer to novel analogous situations. One approach to this challenge is to present the learner with a concrete instantiation of the to-be-learned concept. Concrete instantiations communicate more information than their abstract, generic counterparts and, in doing so, they may facilitate initial learning. However, this article argues that extraneous information in concrete instantiations may distract the learner from the relevant mathematical structure and, as a result, hinder transfer. At the same time, generic instantiations, such as traditional mathematical notation, can be learned by both children and adults and can, in turn, allow for transfer, suggesting that generic instantiations result in a portable knowledge representation.

How Gesture Promotes Learning Throughout Childhood

Abstract: The gestures children use when they talk often reveal knowledge that they do not express in speech. Gesture is particularly likely to reveal these unspoken thoughts when children are on the verge of learning a new task. It thus reflects knowledge in child learners. But gesture can also play a role in changing the child's knowledge, indirectly through its effects on the child's communicative environment and directly through its effects on the child's cognitive state. Because gesture reflects thought and is an early marker of change, it may be possible to use it diagnostically. Gesture (or its lack) may be the first sign of future developmental difficulty. And because gesture can change thought, it may prove to be useful in the home, the classroom, and the clinic as a way to alter the pace, and perhaps the course, of learning and development.

Psychosocial Interventions for School Refusal Behavior in Children and Adolescents

Abstract: This article reviews empirical evidence for the efficacy of psychosocial interventions for school refusal behavior. Data corresponding to eight experimental single-case and seven group-design studies are presented. Across studies, behavioral and cognitive-behavioral treatments emerged as promising lines of intervention. These interventions produced improvements in school attendance and youths'symptom levels (e.g., anxiety, fear, depression, anger) based on this study's examination of effect sizes. The article concludes with suggestions for interventionists, researchers, and policymakers attempting to deal with the problem of school refusal.

Using Concreteness in Education: Real Problems, Potential Solutions

Abstract: — A growing body of research suggests that the use of concrete materials is not a sure-fire strategy for helping children succeed in the classroom. Instead, concrete materials can help or hinder learning, depending on a number of different factors. Taken together, the articles in this issue highlight the complexities involved in using concrete materials in the classroom and warn educators and researchers that students’ learning from concrete materials can be derailed in a number of ways, such as (a) choosing the wrong types of materials, (b) structuring the environment in ways that do not support learning from concrete materials, and (c) failing to connect concrete representations to abstract representations. Each of these problems is discussed and some potential solutions are offered.

Development in Children and Adolescents Whose Mothers Have Borderline Personality Disorder.

Abstract: A mother's mental illness may have a profound effect on her child's development, including an increased risk of the child developing the same disorder. From a developmental psychopathology perspective, offspring provide an opportunity to examine pathways to disorder versus resilience. Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a severe disorder diagnosed in early adulthood involving stormy relationships, an unstable sense of identity, and self-destructive behavior. Interestingly, the domains of dysfunction are conceptually similar to developmental tasks in early childhood reworked in adolescence: attachment, self development, and self-regulation. Early deviation may increase the risk for later disorder. There are five empirical studies of children whose mothers have BPD, two conducted from a developmental perspective. This article proposes a theoretical framework and an innovative methodology with which to extend this research, and suggests an intervention to bring development back on track if necessary.

Rethinking the use of concrete materials in learning: Perspectives from development and education

Abstract: — The idea that concrete materials benefit children’s learning has a long history in developmental psychology and education, dating back to M. Montessori (1917), J. Piaget (1970), and J. S. Bruner (1966). Too often, however, scholars use these traditional views to give concrete materials a blanket endorsement. The articles in this issue go beyond traditional views and advance our understanding of the conditions under which students do and do not benefit from using concrete materials. They suggest that some processes involved in using concrete objects are not restricted to children of a certain age but rather apply across ages. They also highlight the need for systematic investigations into the type and amount of direction students need when working with concrete materials in the classroom.

Response to Intervention: Prevention and Remediation, Perhaps. Diagnosis, No

Abstract: Fletcher and Vaughn (this issue) describe recent changes to federal laws governing special education eligibility for specific learning disabilities focusing on what is commonly known as response to intervention (RTI). We are concerned about what appears to us as a selective review of empirical support for RTI and a consequently overly optimistic view of many practical issues surrounding the implementation of RTI models that neglects the potential negative long-term impact on the range of students with and without a learning disability. These include (1) the lack of a firm evidence base reflected in vagaries and ambiguity of the critical details of the model in practice; (2) the worrisome shortcomings of the RTI process as a means of diagnosis or determination of a disability; (3) the contextual, situation-dependent nature of who is identified; (4) the seeming lack of consideration of bright struggling readers in the RTI process; and (5) the apparent lack of student-based data to guide the most effective choice of approaches to, and specific components of, intervention.

On the Importance of a Unified Model of Responsiveness to Intervention

Abstract: Fletcher and Vaughn (this issue) present a balanced description of the potential advantages and challenges associated with responsiveness-to-intervention (RTI) for preventing academic failure and identifying learning disability In this brief commentary, we take issue with them on only one idea They write, “RTI models are best considered as a set of processes and not a single model” (p X, emphasis added) As they note, RTI practice varies dramatically from site to site, especially in the number of intervention “tiers” and how special education fits We propose that RTI’s major goal, to prevent long-term and debilitating academic failure, is better served by a single, unified model that helps practitioners understand procedural variations under the same umbrella A unified model will permit shared understanding of intervention intensity, shared notions of appropriate roles for various personnel, and a shared conceptualization of the relationship between general and special education We briefly describe such a unified model, explain how it eases some of the challenges associated with RTI implementation, and consider implications for learning disabilities

Commentary on Grolnick and Pomerantz, “Issues and Challenges in Studying Parental Control: Toward a New Conceptualization”

Abstract: Grolnick and Pomerantz (this issue) take on the difficult challenge of rethinking how investigators might use the concept of parental control in the study of child and adolescent development. They note that previous conceptual and empirical work has employed a wide variety of definitions of parental control and argue that this broad range of approaches has created problems for the field. For example, they cite Rollins and Thomas (1979), who identified more than 15 different labels for the construct. This multiplicity of definitions, the authors suggest, has led to ambiguity in the interpretation of research findings. In particular, Grolnick and Pomerantz propose that the multiple-forms approach to defining parental control is so fraught with problems that scholars should replace it with another strategy for describing and measuring control and related constructs. They then suggest a new approach that they believe will solve the problem and also increase the theoretical value of research on these types of parenting behaviors. In this commentary, I first discuss their critique of the multiple-forms approach and then analyze their proposed solution to the conceptual difficulties they describe.

A Theory of Physically Distributed Learning: How External Environments and Internal States Interact in Mathematics Learning

Abstract: — Researchers, teachers, teacher educators, and national organizations espouse the idea that children learn new concepts in concrete contexts and transfer these concepts to abstract situations. Although people can benefit from working with hands-on objects and do tend to solve problems more abstractly as they gain knowledge and experience in a domain, this does not imply that a concrete to abstract shift explains this development. In this article, an alternative theory of physically distributed learning (PDL) is presented. In PDL, learning involves changes in internal and external elements of cognitive systems. These changes occur as the internal and external elements coevolve, or change each other, over time.

The Importance of Learning About Knowing: Creating a Foundation for Development of Intellectual Values

Abstract: — How does understanding of knowledge and knowing develop and why is it important? This article argues that it provides a critical foundation for the development of intellectual values, which in turn are central to educational outcomes. Because evidence indicates that this development does not routinely occur in the absence of specific efforts to support it, developmentalists need to join educators in seeking to identify the kinds of experiences that can best provide this support.

Innateness, Learning, and Rationality

Abstract: — J. P. Spencer et al. (2009) ask readers to reject the nativist–empiricist dialogue and adopt a new theoretical perspective on cognition, focusing on “developmental process.” This commentary argues that the dialogue between nativism and empiricism is a rich source of insight into the nature and development of human knowledge. Indeed, the dialogue is entering a new and exciting phase, in which new methods of controlled rearing and of cognitive neuroscience, and new conceptual tools for understanding learning, allow exploration of how human concepts emerge through the interaction of innate cognitive structures shaped by natural selection, with statistical learning processes shaped by specific encounters with the world. This approach fosters new, interdisciplinary research that promises to increase dramatically understanding of human knowledge.

Exploring Mathematics Difficulties in Children With Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

Abstract: — Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) may cause a range of physical, mental, behavioral, and learning problems in children whose mothers consumed alcohol during pregnancy One area of particular weakness for these children is mathematics, with deficits apparent even in studies that control for many potentially confounding variables and IQ Deficits related to FASD are evident on many different components of mathematics, from standardized achievement measures to specific mathematics tests, and occur among young children, adolescents, and even adults Children with FASD tend to have more difficulty with mathematics than with other cognitive areas, and mathematics is most highly correlated with the amount of prenatal alcohol exposure To determine why math is such a significant area of weakness for children with FASD, research must explore how these children perform on different components of mathematics, the brain areas implicated in their mathematics deficits, the cognitive factors that underlie these deficits, and the profile of strengths and weaknesses of these children Research also is needed on mathematical skills of preschool children with FASD and how math abilities develop in later years Finally, studies are imperative on the efficacy of interventions designed to improve the math skills of children with FASD

On Genes, Brains, and Behavior: Why Should Developmental Psychologists Care About Brain Development?

Abstract: — The past several decades have seen tremendous progress in understanding mammalian brain development. The models that have emerged suggest that this development is dynamic and, from the very beginning, involves the continuous interaction of genetic, organismic, and environmental factors. The central question posed in this article is whether these models of brain development should be of import to developmental psychologists. It is argued that the key debates in psychology are founded on assumptions that are integrally related to questions of biology and biological inheritance. The construct of innateness, in particular, is central to these debates, and the biological system most critically implicated in claims about innate behaviors is the brain. However, as this article attempts to show, the underlying assumptions of contemporary psychological models reflect largely outdated ideas about what it means for something to be innate. Contemporary models of brain development challenge the foundational constructs of the nature versus nurture formulation, emphasizing that the processes of brain development engage both inherited and environmental factors and rely upon their continuous interaction. These models also emphasize that the relationship between brain and behavioral development is one of interdependence and reciprocity: Behaviors influence brain development and the brain mediates all behavior. Thus, the key to understanding the origins and emergence of both the brain and behavior lies in understanding how genetic, organismic, and environmental factors are engaged in the dynamic and interactive processes that define development of the neurobehavioral system.

Debating the Impact of Television and Video Material on Very Young Children: Attention, Learning, and the Developing Brain

Abstract: The debate about the potential of television and video material to enhance or diminish cognitive development in infants and toddlers has been compli- catedbyspeculationregardingtherelationbetweenearly exposure to these media and the developing brain. Those on both sides of the debate draw on findings from developmental and neuroscience literatures to make explicit or implicit arguments that video experience during the first 2 or 3 years can have a unique and powerful impact on learning that cannot be readily duplicated or undone outside this sensitive period of development. This article tries to put such speculation into perspective by considering it within the framework of W.T.Greenough,J.T.Black,andC.S.Wallace's(1987) distinction between experience-expectant and experi- ence-dependent plasticity. Data from infant-learning and attention research are used to illustrate how this distinction illuminates both sides of the debate. KEYWORDS—infant; toddler; television; video; attention; learning; brain development

Preaching to the Converted? From Constructivism to Neuroconstructivism

Abstract: It is argued that neuroconstructivism offers the strongest middle ground between nativism and empiricism, and that two domain-general mechanisms—statistical learning and associative learning—do not suffice to explain alone the intricacies of brain development and emergent domain specificity.

Social Cognitive Development: A New Look

Abstract: —This article showcases exciting new work in the burgeoning area of social cognitive development, particularly work that uses the methods of cognitive development to illuminate socially relevant mental representations and mental processes. The authors focus on key aspects of children’s emerging social judgments and social representations, examining their judgments of goodness, their evaluations of similar and dissimilar others, and their representations of social relationships. The authors also show how researchers using methods from other fields, such as adult social cognition, comparative psychology, and neuroscience, are making important new contact with social cognitive development to shed light on the origins and nature of social representations and social cognitive processes.

Should We Care About Adolescents Who Care for Themselves? What We Have Learned and What We Need to Know About Youth in Self-Care

Abstract: Developmental consequences for youth who experience self-care (unsupervised time during the out-of-school hours) have been of interest to researchers, policy-makers, and families for decades (e.g., Mahoney, Vandell, Simpkins, & Zarrett, in press; Vandell & Posner, 1999). Prior to the mid-1980s, youth in this arrangement were often referred to as “latchkey children” because of the house key they often wore around their neck (e.g., Long & Long, 1982). However, some considered this term to have negative connotations (Rodman, Pratto, & Smith Nelson, 1985), and descriptors such as “self-care” and “non-adult care” have been increasingly used instead. The changing terms coincide with an ongoing debate over the consequences of this arrangement for the healthy development of young people. Proponents argue for a positive impact of self-care, including its allowing parents the opportunity to work and providing youth an experience that may increase their responsibility, independence, and self-reliance (e.g., Belle, 1994; 1999; Galambos & Dixon 1984; Stewart, 1981). In contrast, opponents have pointed to risks that can arise for unsupervised youth, such as injury, victimization, exposure to crime, and association with deviant peers (e.g., Galambos & Dixon 1984; Riley & Steinberg, 2004; Zigler, 1983). This article provides an overview of the literature on adolescent self-care that is guided by the bioecological perspective to development (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). This perspective assumes that development occurs through a process of continuity and change in interactions between the individual’s biopsychological characteristics (including physical characteristics, behavioral dispositions, motivations, abilities, and knowledge) and features of the nested ecologies (proximal to distal) that the individual is part of over time. In this view, understanding whether and how self-care affects development requires attention to relations among youth characteristics (e.g., gender, age, behavior) and ecological features that contextualize and affect adolescents’ self-care experience (e.g., parenting, peers, home, neighborhood). Other theoretical perspectives (e.g., routine-activity theory, person-stage-environment fit perspective) provide additional insight about individual and social-ecological conditions that are important for understanding consequences of self-care. This article is organized into three sections dealing with the prevalence and predictors of self-care; the consequences associated with self-care; and conclusions and future directions.