Showing papers in "Comprehensive Physiology in 1986"

Neurophysiology of Breathing in Mammals

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Respiratory Homeostasis and Control of Respiratory Movements 1.1 Effectors of Ventilation 1.2 Respiratory Muscles and Their Innervation 1.3 Summary 2 Central Location of Respiratory Controller 2.1 Historical Background 2.2 Summary 2.3 Modern View 2.4 Brain Stem Anatomy 2.5 Classification of Respiratory Neurons 2.6 Connections Between Respiratory Neurons 2.7 Location and Mechanisms for Generation of Respiratory Patterns 2.8 Production of Respiratory Pattern 2.9 Central Pattern Generation and Respiration 2.10 Hypothesis for Role of Dorsal and Ventral Respiratory Groups in Generating Respiratory Pattern 3 Sensors 3.1 Time Course of Responses to Respiratory Afferent Stimulation 3.2 Integrated Responses to Changes in Carbon Dioxide 3.3 Integrated Responses to Changes in Oxygen 3.4 Summary 4 Mechanoreceptors 4.1 Pulmonary Stretch Receptors 4.2 Summary 5 Exercise—An Example of an Integrated Response 5.1 Critique 6 State Dependence 7 Conclusion

Reflexes Evoked from Tracheobronchial Tree and Lungs

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Afferent Endings in Tracheobronchial Tree and Lungs 1.1 Slowly Adapting Pulmonary Stretch Receptors 1.2 Rapidly Adapting Stretch (Irritant) Receptors 1.3 Pulmonary and Bronchial C-Fibers 2 Reflexes 2.1 Reflexes Evoked by Volume Changes 2.2 Reflexes Evoked by Chemicals

Brain Stem Mechanisms for Generation and Control of Breathing Pattern

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Homeostatic and Behavioral Regulation of Breathing—Aims and Compromises 2 Some General Features of Rhythm-Generating Mechanisms for Automatic Breathing 2.1 Is There More Than One CPG for Automatic Breathing? 2.2 Spinal Pattern Generator 2.3 Bilaterally Symmetric CPG 3 Localization of Basic Rhythm Generator for Automatic Breathing 3.1 Brain Stem Transections 3.2 Localization by Electrical Stimulation 3.3 Localization by Recording RR Neural Activity 4 Distribution of RR Neurons and Their Functional Properties 4.1 General Outline of Medullary RR Neurons 4.2 Ventral Respiratory Group 4.3 Dorsal Respiratory Group 4.4 Problem of Reciprocal Interaction Between Inspiratory and Expiratory Bulbospinal Neurons 4.5 Why Are There Two Separate Pools of Inspiratory Premotor Neurons? 4.6 Summary 5 Functional Organization of Respiratory CPG—Systems Behavior 5.1 Methods 5.2 General Organizational Features of CPG and Its Main Afferent Feedback Systems 5.3 Mechanisms Controlling Inspiratory Parameters 5.4 Control of Expiratory Parameters 5.5 Concept of Breathing Pattern for Ergometric Minimization 6 Conclusions

Initiation and Control of Chemoreceptor Activity in the Carotid Body

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Structure 1.1 General Anatomy, Histology, and Embryology of Carotid Body 1.2 Carotid Body Ultrastructure 1.3 Pathological Changes and Physiologically Induced Changes in Carotid Body Morphology 2 Response of Chemoreceptors 2.1 Resting Chemoreceptor Discharge 2.2 Chemoreceptor Response to Hypoxia 2.3 Chemoreceptor Response to Partial Pressure of CO2 and pH 2.4 Chemoreceptor Response to Temperature and Osmolarity 2.5 Carotid Body Blood Flow, O2 Consumption, and Chemoresponse 2.6 Efferent Modulation of Chemosensory Discharge 3 Mechanisms of Chemoreception 3.1 Transducer Element(s) in Carotid Body 3.2 Biophysical Aspects of Chemoreception 3.3 Role of Putative Neurotransmitters in Chemotransduction 3.4 Hypotheses on Mechanisms of Chemoreception 4 Addendum 4.1 Recent Advances in Carotid Body Chemoreception 4.2 Structure 4.3 Response of Chemoreceptors 4.4 Mechanisms of Chemoreception

Interactions Between Respiration and Circulation

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Spontaneous Respiratory Variations in the Cardiovascular System 1.1 Arterial Blood Pressure 1.2 Heart Rate 1.3 Cardiac Output 1.4 Systemic Vascular Resistance 1.5 Pulmonary Hemodynamics 2 Central Nervous Control of Respiration and the Cardiovascular System 2.1 Receptors and Afferent Pathways 2.2 Cell Bodies and Efferent Pathways 2.3 Central Control of Sympathetic Efferent Activity 2.4 Descending Pathways to Spinal Sympathetic Outflow 3 Central and Local Peripheral Circulatory Control by Blood Gases 3.1 Central Effects 3.2 Peripheral Effects 4 Some Reflex Neural Control Mechanisms 4.1 Arterial Baroreceptors 4.2 Peripheral Arterial Chemoreceptors 4.3 Upper Airway Receptors 4.4 Facial Receptors 4.5 Cardiopulmonary Receptors 4.6 Overall Involvement of Cardiopulmonary Receptors 5 Reflex Cardiovascular Effects of Lung Inflation 5.1 Cardiac Responses 5.2 Changes in Systemic Vascular Resistance 5.3 Coronary Circulation 5.4 Nature of Pulmonary Receptors 6 Mechanisms of Respiratory Modulation 6.1 Pulmonary Vagal Reflex 6.2 Central Respiratory Neuronal Activity 6.3 Hypocapnia 7 Phasic Respiratory Modulation of Reflex Responses 7.1 Respiration 7.2 Heart Rate 8 Respiratory Modulation of Specific Inputs to Nervous System 8.1 Modulation by Hyperventilation 8.2 Modulation by Reflex Hypoventilation and Apnea 8.3 Interactions Between Carotid Baroreceptors and Chemoreceptors 9 Respiratory Modulation of Vagal and Sympathetic Efferent Fiber Activity 9.1 Activity in Cardiac Vagal Efferent Fibers 9.2 Activity in Sympathetic Efferent Nerves 9.3 Mechanisms of Central Integration 10 Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia 10.1 Mechanisms 11 Some Examples of Respiratory-Circulatory Integrative Control 11.1 Effects of Deep Breath 11.2 Valsalva Maneuver 11.3 Acute Hypoxia 11.4 Hypocapnia 11.5 Hypercapnia 11.6 Asphyxia and Breath Holding 11.7 Breath-Hold Diving 12 Effects of Changes in the Cardiovascular System on Respiration 12.1 Respiration, Metabolism, and Cardiac Output 12.2 Hemorrhagic Hypotension 13 Medical Implications of Respiratory-Cardiovascular Interactions 13.1 Diving Response 13.2 Protective Effects of Defense Mechanisms 13.3 Exaggerated Defense Responses 13.4 Restoration of Normal Cardiac Rhythm 13.5 Sudden Infant Death Syndrome

Integration of Respiratory Responses to Changes in Alveolar Partial Pressures of CO2 and O2 and in Arterial pH

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Feedback Loop 11 Metabolic Hyperbola 12 Steady-State Relations Between Stimulus and Response 13 Sites of Interaction Between Hypercapnic and Hypoxic Drives 14 Apnea Point: Carbon Dioxide-Acid Thresholds 2 Dynamic Properties of Respiratory Control System 21 Dynamics of Receptors 22 Dynamic Properties of Overall System 23 Respiratory Oscillations and Whole-System Responses 3 Pattern of Breathing 31 Mean Values in Steady States 32 Changing States: Dynamic Responses 33 Nonclassic Dynamic Stimuli 4 Potassium 5 Stability of Alveolar and Arterial CO2 and O2 Tensions 6 Concluding Remarks

Reward, Motivation, Cognition: Psychobiology of Mesotelencephalic Dopamine Systems

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Organization and Regulation of Mesolimbic DA System 1.1 Anatomy 1.2 Chemistry 1.3 Physiology 2 Motor Functions 2.1 Regional Considerations 2.2 Stereotypy 2.3 Biochemical Anatomy of Mesolimbic Motor System 2.4 Rotation 2.5 Theoretical Implications 3 Dopaminergic Substrates of Reward 3.1 Intracranial Self-Stimulation 3.2 Intravenous Self-Administration 3.3 Place-Preference Conditioning 3.4 Functional Significance 4 Adjunctive Behaviors 4.1 Electrical Stimulation of Lateral Hypothalamus 4.2 Tail Pinch-Induced Behaviors 5 Learning, Memory, and Cognition 6 Possible Role of Mesotelencephalic DA Systems in Motivation and Emotion

Respiratory Control During Exercise

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 New Techniques for Studying Exercise Hyperpnea 1.1 Computerized Data Analysis 1.2 Systems Analysis of Dynamic Work-Rate Forcings 2 Behavior of Ventilatory Control System 2.1 Ventilatory Response to Incremental Exercise 2.2 Ventilatory Response to Constant-Load Exercise 2.3 Factors Affecting Ventilatory Response to Constant-Load Exercise 3 Conceptual Development of Ventilatory Control Hypotheses 3.1 Central Neurogenic Drive 3.2 Peripheral Neurogenic Drive 3.3 Neurohumoral Drive 3.4 Humoral Concepts 3.5 Cardiovascular Linkages 4 Conclusion

Oscillation Mechanics of the Respiratory System

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Modeling the Respiratory System as a Linear System 1.1 Models 1.2 Elemental Equations 1.3 Sinusoidal Forcing and Complex Impedance 1.4 Continuity and Compatibility Conditions 1.5 General Formulation of System Models 1.6 System Functions 1.7 Equivalent Circuits 1.8 Distributed-Parameter Models 2 History 3 Experimental Methods 3.1 Equipment 3.2 Inputs and Data Processing 3.3 Upper Airway Variability and Shunt 4 Frequency Responses Below 100 HZ 4.1 Total Respiratory System 4.2 Input Impedance Forcing at the Airway Opening 4.3 Transfer Impedance Forcing at the Chest 4.4 Transfer Impedance Forcing at the Mouth 4.5 Pressure and Flow Transfer Functions 4.6 Lung Impedance 4.7 Chest Wall Impedance 4.8 Airway Impedance 5 Frequency Responses Above 100 HZ 5.1 Wave Propagation in the Airways 5.2 Input Impedance Forcing at the Airway Opening 5.3 Pressure Transfer Functions 5.4 Airway Area by Acoustic Reflections 6 Clinical Applications 6.1 Pulmonary Function in Children 6.2 Obstructive Lung Diseases 6.3 Restrictive Lung Diseases 6.4 Miscellaneous Lung Diseases

Lung Mechanics in Disease

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Obstructive Lung Disease 1.1 Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 1.2 Asthma 1.3 Upper Airway Obstruction 2 Restrictive Lung Disease 2.1 Intrapulmonary Disease 2.2 Extrapulmonary Disease

Control of Breathing in Ectothermic Vertebrates

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Breathing Patterns 1.1 Rhythmic Breathing in Unimodal Aquatic Exchange 1.2 Ram Ventilation in Unimodal Aquatic Exchange 1.3 Periodic Breathing in Bimodal Exchange 1.4 Periodic Breathing in Unimodal Aerial Exchange 2 Breathing and Metabolism 3 Rhythmic Breathing: Control in Unimodal Aquatic Systems 3.1 Central Pattern Generation 3.2 Responses to Mechanoreceptor Input 3.3 Responses to Chemoreceptor Input 4 Periodic Breathing: Control in Bimodal and Unimodal Aerial Systems 4.1 Pattern Generation 4.2 Role of Peripheral Input in Pattern Generation 4.3 Responses to Chemoreceptor Input 5 Conclusion

Alveolar Surface Tension and Lung Surfactant

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Background 1.1 Early Contributors 1.2 Relevance of Alveolar Surface Film 1.3 Current Model of Lung Surfactant Action 2 Definition and Measurement of Surface Tension 2.1 Generation of Interfacial Tension 2.2 Methods 3 Adsorption and Spreading of Surfactant Films 3.1 Form of Surfactant 3.2 Factors Affecting Adsorption and Spreading 4 Properties of Films Related to Lung Surfactant 4.1 Low Surface Tension and Other Quasi-Static Film Properties 4.2 Dynamic Film Properties 5 Influence of Surface Tension on Lung Pressure-Volume Behavior 5.1 Static Properties 5.2 Dynamic Properties 6 Turnover and Recycling of Surfactant Components 6.1 Possible Recycling Paths 6.2 Local Monolayer Recycling 6.3 Extramonolayer Recycling Pathways 7 Summary of Lung Surfactant Properties 7.1 Rapid Adsorption and Spreading 7.2 Low Surface Tension When Film is Compressed 7.3 Stable Low Surface Tension 8 Future Considerations

Static Behavior of the Respiratory System

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Lung Volumes 2 Volume-Pressure Relations of Respiratory System During Relaxation 2.1 Total Respiratory System 2.2 Chest Wall and Lung 2.3 Effects of Gravity and Posture 2.4 Changes Throughout Life Span 3 Volume-Pressure Relations of Respiratory System During Static Muscular Efforts 3.1 Alveolar Pressure 3.2 Abdominal and Thoracic Pressures 4 Factors Limiting Volume Extremes 4.1 Upper Volume Extreme 4.2 Lower Volume Extreme

Reflexes from the Upper Respiratory Tract

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Reflexes from the Nose 1.1 Receptors and Afferent Nerves 1.2 Apnea and the Diving Response 1.3 The Sneeze 1.4 Sniffing 1.5 Other Reflexes From the Nose 2 Reflexes from the Pharynx 2.1 Aspiration Reflex 2.2 Swallowing 2.3 Other Pharyngeal Reflexes 3 Reflexes from the Larynx 3.1 Nervous End Organs in the Larynx 3.2 Recordings From Afferent Fibers 3.3 Respiratory Reflexes 3.4 Cardiovascular Reflexes 3.5 Other Laryngeal Reflexes 4 General Upper Airway Reflex Responses 4.1 Responses to Pressure 4.2 Responses to Flow 4.3 Responses to Temperature Changes 4.4 Sensation

Neuronal Basis of Behavioral State Control

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Behavioral States and Biological Rhythms 1.1 State Concept and Definition of Some Behavioral States 1.2 Neuronal Correlates of Behavioral States and Their Interpretation as Causes 1.3 Temporal Aspects of Behavioral States 1.4 Circadian Rhythms and Behavioral State Control 2 Anatomical Substrates of Regulatory Systems 2.1 Changing the Concept of Nonspecificity 2.2 Brain Stem Reticular Formation 2.3 Thalamoneocortical Systems Related to Ascending Reticular Influences 2.4 Monoaminergic Systems 3 Brain Stem Core Systems Regulating Forebrain Activation 3.1 Definition of Activation 3.2 Search for Critical Regions at Global Level: Lesion-Stimulation Studies 3.3 Criteria of Cellular Evaluation 3.4 Search for Candidate Mechanisms at Single-Cell Level 4 Thalamocortical Mechanisms Related to Activation and Deactivation Processes 4.1 Spontaneous Activity 4.2 Excitatory-Inhibitory Response Sequence 4.3 Excitability Enhancement During Attentional Tasks 4.4 Neurons and Transmitters Responsible for Thalamocortical Activation Processes 5 Sleep Cycle 5.1 Definition and Phenomenology 5.2 Cellular Correlates of Cycle 5.3 Pontine Localization of Desynchronized-Sleep Trigger and Clock 5.4 Aminergic Hypothesis 5.5 Reciprocal Interaction Model of Sleep-Cycle Control 5.6 Neuropharmacology of Sleep Cycle 6 Physiology and Pathophysiology of Sleep in Humans 6.1 Pathophysiological Model of Human Disorders 6.2 Pathophysiology of Narcolepsy 6.3 Pathophysiology of Sleep Apnea Syndromes 6.4 Disturbances of Motor Activity in Sleep 6.5 Dreaming and Disturbances of Mental Activity in Sleep 7 Functional Significance of Sleep and Waking States 7.1 General Adaptational Advantages of Rhythmic State Alternations 7.2 Rest Theory of Sleep 7.3 Development Implications of REM Sleep as Internal Activation Process 7.4 States and Acquisition of Learned Aspects of Adaptive Behavior 7.5 States and Metabolic Mode of the Brain 8 Conclusions

Oscillation, Gating, and Memory in the Respiratory Control System

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Oscillation of Respiratory Stimuli 1.1 Chemical Stimuli 1.2 Mechanical Stimuli 2 Gating 2.1 Mechanisms 2.2 Physiological Effects 3 Memory in Respiratory Control System 3.1 Memories of Short and Medium Duration 3.2 Memories of Long Duration

Dynamics of Respiration

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Equation of Motion 1.1 Application of Equation of Motion to a Model 1.2 Determination of Resistance and Compliance 1.3 Inertance and Reactance 1.4 Impedance 1.5 Time Constant 1.6 Nonlinear Resistance and Hysteresis 1.7 Application of Equation of Motion to the Respiratory System 2 Applied Pressures 2.1 Relationship to Lung Volume 2.2 Tidal Breathing 3 Opposing Pressures 3.1 Flow Resistance 4 Maximal Expiratory Flow 4.1 Gas Compression and Measurement of Flow-Volume Curves 5 Dynamics of Breathing 5.1 Breathing at Rest and During Exercise 5.2 Factors Affecting Respiratory Dynamics

Catecholaminergic Brain Stem Regulatory Systems

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Catecholaminergic Cell Groups 1.1 Noradrenergic Cell Groups 1.2 Dopaminergic Cell Groups 2 Phylogenetic Perspective 2.1 Comparative Aspects of Brain Stem Catecholaminergic Cell Groups 2.2 Catecholaminergic Projections to Forebrain 3 Catecholaminergic Fiber Tracts 3.1 Dorsal Tegmental Bundle 3.2 Central Tegmental Tract 3.3 Periventricular System 3.4 Nigrostriatal Pathway 3.5 Medial Forebrain Bundle 4 Dopaminergic Projection Systems 4.1 Mesotelencephalic System 4.2 Diencephalic Projections of Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Cell Groups 4.3 Descending Projections From Mesencephalic Dopaminergic Cell Groups 4.4 Projections of Diencephalic Cell Groups 5 Mesotelencephalic Dopaminergic Neurons and Organization of Striatal and Limbic Forebrain Circuitry 5.1 General Organizational Features 5.2 Transmitter Characteristics 6 Functional Aspects of Mesotelencephalic Dopamine System 6.1 Dopamine-Deficiency Syndrome 6.2 Simplified Scheme for Dopaminergic Regulation of Striatal Output Functions 6.3 Dopaminergic Modulation of Neurotransmission in Substantia Nigra Through Dendrites of Nigral Neurons 7 Noradrenergic Projection Systems 7.1 Locus Coeruleus System 7.2 Lateral Tegmental and Dorsal Medullary Systems 8 Noradrenergic Systems Viewed as Components of Brain Stem Reticular Formation 9 Functional Aspects of Brain Stem Noradrenergic Systems 9.1 Neuromodulatory Actions 9.2 Arousal and Attention 9.3 Descending Effects on Locomotion 9.4 Blood Flow, Stress, and Epileptic Seizures 10 Regenerative Responses and Functional Recovery After Brain Injury 10.1 Regeneration After Axotomy 10.2 Collateral Sprouting After Deafferentation 10.3 Compensatory Hyperactivity 10.4 Reinnervation and Recovery of Function by Grafted Catecholaminergic Neurons 11 Summary 11.1 Catecholamine Neurons Can Operate in Both Synaptic and Neurohumoral Manners 11.2 Catecholamines Function at Both Axonal and Dendritic Terminals 11.3 Catecholamine Release Depends on Neuronal Activity and Local Transmitter Interactions

Respiratory Muscle Energetics

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Thermodynamics 1.1 Heat, Work, and Efficiency 1.2 Energy Balance 1.3 Energetics and Limitation of Airflow 2 Energy Supply 2.1 Blood Flow 2.2 Substrate Metabolism 2.3 Estimation of Energy Change 2.4 Tension-Time Index 3 Work of Breathing 3.1 Definitions 3.2 Positive Work, Negative Work, and No Work 3.3 Graphical Analysis of Work 3.4 Theoretical Estimation of Work 3.5 Measurement of Mechanical Work 3.6 Work Rate (Power) 3.7 Maximal Available Work and Power 4 Efficiency of Breathing 4.1 Mechanical Work 4.2 Metabolic Cost 5 Physiological Considerations 5.1 Optimal Breathing Frequency 5.2 Respiratory Muscle Energetics and Exercise 5.3 Respiratory Muscle Energetics in Health and Disease

Upper Airway Motor Systems

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Clues About Phylogeny: Upper Respiratory Tract Breathing Movements in Lower Vertebrates 2 Ontogeny: Development of Mammalian Upper Respiratory Tract Musculature 2.1 Structural Development During Intrauterine Life 2.2 Upper Airway Function During Fetal Life 2.3 Upper Airway Function at Birth 2.4 Postnatal Development 3 Adult Mammalian Upper Airway Motor Systems 3.1 Nose and Mouth 3.2 Pharynx 3.3 Larynx 4 Conclusion

Ventilatory Control at High Altitude

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Acute Ventilatory Response to High Altitude 2 Subacute Ventilatory Response to High Altitude (Acclimatization) 3 Altitude Acclimatization 3.1 Role of Peripheral Chemoreceptors 3.2 Role of Hypocapnia and Hyperventilation 3.3 Role of Acid-Base Adjustments 3.4 Role of Other Factors 4 Ventilatory Control During Long-Term High-Altitude Exposure 4.1 Hypoxic Desensitization 4.2 Hypoxic Ventilatory Depression 5 Sleep at High Altitude 6 Ventilatory Control in Relation to Syndromes of High Altitude 6.1 Acute Mountain Sickness 6.2 High-Altitude Pulmonary Edema 6.3 Chronic Mountain Sickness 7 Conclusion

Functional Morphology of Lung Parenchyma

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Elements of Lung Structure 1.1 Epithelium 1.2 Surface Lining of Air Spaces 1.3 Endothelium 1.4 Interstitial Space and Structures 2 Elements of the Fiber System 2.1 Collagen and Reticulin Fibers 2.2 Elastic Fibers 2.3 Integral Fiber Strand 3 Fiber Continuum of the Lung 3.1 Axial Fiber System 3.2 Peripheral Fiber System 3.3 Alveolar Septal Fiber System 4 Design of the Alveolar Septum 5 Alveolar Surface Lining Layer 6 Deformation of the Alveolar Septum Under the Effect of Interacting Forces 7 Geometry and Mechanics of the Acinus 8 Conclusions

Central Control of Nociception

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Pain and Its Measurement 2 Primary Afferent System 2.1 Fiber Systems Signaling Sensory Pain From Skin, Muscle, and Viscera 2.2 Neurotransmitters in Primary Afferent Fibers 3 Neuronal Circuitry Mediating Nociception 3.1 Spinofugal Projection Systems and Intrinsic Spinal Circuitry 4 Neurotransmitters and Integration of Nociceptive Information 4.1 Amino Acid Neurotransmitters 4.2 Monoamines 4.3 Neuropeptides 5 Opioid-Induced Analgesia 5.1 Opioid Actions on Central Neurons Signaling Sensory Pain 5.2 Mode of Action of Opioids 5.3 Actions of Naloxone 6 Pain Modulation Triggered by Peripheral Mechanisms 6.1 Activation of Low-Threshold Receptors 6.2 Acupuncture 6.3 Transcutaneous Nerve Stimulation 6.4 Activation of High-Threshold Receptors 6.5 Stress-Induced Analgesia 6.6 Analgesia Evoked by Hypnosis 7 Pain Modulation Triggered by Central Stimulation 7.1 Dorsal Column Stimulation 7.2 Stimulation of Descending Pathways 7.3 Monoaminergic System and Stimulus-Produced Analgesia 7.4 Opioid-Induced and Stimulus-Produced Analgesia 8 Epilogue

Histaminergic Transmission in the Brain

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Metabolism of Histamine in Brain 1.1 Biosynthesis 1.2 Storage 1.3 Release 1.4 Inactivation 1.5 Turnover 2 Identification of Histaminergic Neuronal Pathways by Lesion Studies 2.1 Evidence for Histaminergic Pathway in Medial Forebrain Bundle 2.2 Studies of Histaminergic Afferents in Hippocampal and Amygdaloid Regions 2.3 Attempts at Localizing Origin of Histaminergic Pathways 3 Immunohistochemical Localization of Histaminergic Neuronal Pathways 3.1 Various Immunohistochemical Tools 3.2 Localization of Immunoreactive Cell Bodies 3.3 Histaminergic Neuronal Projections and Areas of Terminations 4 Histamine Receptors and Actions in Brain 4.1 Pharmacological Tools for Identification of Subclasses of Histamine Receptors 4.2 Radioligand Binding Studies of Histamine Receptors 4.3 Histamine Receptors Linked to cAMP Formation 4.4 Histamine-Induced Glycogenolysis 4.5 Other Biochemical Responses to Histamine Mediated by H1 Receptors 4.6 Electrophysiological Investigation of Histamine Actions in Brain 4.7 Neuroendocrine Responses to Histamine 4.8 Vegetative Responses to Histamine 4.9 Effects of Histamine on Vascular Regulation in Brain 5 Conclusion

Afferent Inputs to Breathing: Respiratory Sensation

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Methods used to Quantify Respiratory Sensations 1.1 Threshold Measurements 1.2 Scaling Methods 1.3 Apparatus for Adding Resistive and Elastic Loads 2 Perception of Volume, Ventilation, Frequency, and Pressure 2.1 Thresholds for Detection 2.2 Scaling Performance 2.3 Volume-Matching Studies 3 Perception of Added Resistive and Elastic Loads 3.1 Load-Detection Thresholds 3.2 Scaling of Added Loads to Breathing 4 Ability to Discriminate Between Added Resistive and Elastic Loads 5 Effects of Aging on Respiratory Sensation 5.1 Perception of Volume and Pressure 5.2 Perception of Added Loads 6 Perception in Patients with Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease 6.1 Load Detection (Difference-Threshold Measurements) 6.2 Scaling of Added Loads 7 Potential Sites for Receptors Subserving Load and Volume Perception 7.1 Upper (Extrathoracic) Airways 7.2 Lungs 7.3 Chest Wall 7.4 Diaphragm 8 Proposed Mechanisms of Perception 8.1 Evidence Supporting Primary Role of Muscle Afferents 8.2 Apparent Contributions of Motor Command 9 Interplay Between Perceptual Performance and Ventilatory Control 10 Summary

Organization of Mammalian Neuroendocrine System

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Regulation of Pituitary Gland 2 Anatomy of Pituitary Gland and Circumventricular Organs 3 Anatomy of Hypothalamus 3.1 Pathway-Tracing Methods 4 Pathways Containing Hormones of Magnocellular Neurosecretory System 4.1 Projections to Pituitary 4.2 Projection to Median Eminence 4.3 Projections to Limbic Region and Choroid Plexus 4.4 Projections to Brain Stem and Spinal Cord 4.5 Suprachiasmatic Nucleus 5 Pathways Containing Hormones of Parvocellular Neurosecretory System 5.1 Thyrotropin-Releasing Hormone 5.2 Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone 5.3 Somatostatin 5.4 Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone 5.5 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone 6 Summary 6.1 Location of Neurosecretory Cell Bodies 6.2 Extrahypophysial Pathways 6.3 Afferent Control of Peptidergic Neurons 7 Conclusion

Micromechanics of the Lung

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Configuration of Terminal Air Spaces 1.1 Macroscopic Isotropy and Symmetry of Expansion 1.2 Alveolus–Alveolar Duct Interactions 1.3 Air-Space Morphometry—Light Microscopy 1.4 Air-Space Morphometry—Electron Microscopy 2 Mechanical Interactions of Tissue and Surface 2.1 Mechanical Models 2.2 Morphology in Presence and Absence of Surface Tension 2.3 Effects on Capillaries and Interstitial Fluid 3 Closure 3.1 Airways 3.2 Alveoli 3.3 Sequence of Closure 4 Opening 4.1 Airways 4.2 Alveoli 4.3 Mechanics of Opening 4.4 Septal Pleats 5 Gas Trapping 5.1 Foam 5.2 Mechanism 5.3 Trapping in Vivo 6 Instability 6.1 Negative Pressure- Volume Compliance 6.2 Configurational Stability 6.3 Surface Tension Elastance 6.4 Positive Tissue Elastance 6.5 Network Behavior (Interdependence)

Hormones and Neurochemicals in the Regulation of Breathing

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Hormones 1.1 Progesterone 1.2 Thyroid Hormone 1.3 Estrogens and Androgens 1.4 Angiotensin 2 Neurochemicals 2.1 Monoamines 2.2 Amino Acids 2.3 Peptides

Brain Monoamines, Homeostasis, and Adaptive Behavior

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Homeostasis: Physiological and Behavioral Contributions 1.1 Specific and Nonspecific Components of Homeostatic Responses 2 General Characteristics of Central Monoaminergic Systems 2.1 Anatomical Characteristics 2.2 Physiological Characteristics 2.3 Synaptic Homeostasis 2.4 Constancy of Transmitter Stores 2.5 Summary 3 Dopamine-Depleting Brain Lesions and Behavior 3.1 Initial Behavioral Deficits 3.2 Recovery of Function 4 Dopamine-Depleting Brain Lesions and Behavior: A Biological Appraisal 4.1 Why Are Large Lesions Required Before Deficits Occur? 4.2 Why Do Animals Recover From Initial Effects of These Lesions? 4.3 What Is Significance of Residual Behavioral Deficits? 5 Concluding Comments 5.1 Effects of Peripheral Sympathectomy 5.2 Arousal and Motivation