Showing papers in "Comprehensive Physiology in 2001"

Adrenocortical Responses to Stress and Their Modulation in Free‐Living Vertebrates

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Labile (Transient) Perturbation Factors 2 The Emergency Life History Stage 3 Comparative Hormone Responses to Classical Stressors 3.1 Actions of Adrenal Hormones During Stress 3.2 Regulation of the Emergency Life History Stage by Glucocorticosteroids 4 Examples of the Emergency Life History Stage in Nature 4.1 Severe Storms and Interruption of Breeding 4.2 Snow and Ground-Feeding Birds 4.3 Storms and Oceanic Birds 4.4 Intraspecific Competition 4.5 Human Disturbance and Pollution 4.6 A Case for Glucocorticosteroids as Mediators of the Emergency Life History Stage 5 Facultative Metamorphosis 5.1 Desiccation and Metamorphosis in Amphibians 6 Semelparity and Programmed Death—Role of Glucocorticosteroids 6.1 Fish 6.2 Dasyurid Marsupials 7 Modulation of Adrenocortical Responses to Labile Perturbation Factors (Including Stress) 7.1 The Capture Stress Protocol 7.2 Variation Among and Within Populations Across Seasons 7.3 Facultative Variation Within a Population 7.4 Individual Variation Within a Population and Season 7.5 Variation in Physiological and Behavioral Responses to Elevated Levels of Glucocorticosteroids 8 Conclusion

Chronic Stress and Energy Balance: Role of the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Regulation of Function in the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis 1.1 Corticosteroid Receptors: Feedback Control of the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis by Exogenous Corticosteroid Treatment 1.2 Stressor-Induced Endogenous Corticosteroid Secretion and Feedback Control 1.3 Chronic or Repeated Stressors Induce Facilitated Responses 1.4 Diurnal Rhythms and Responsivity 2 Acute Versus Chronic Stressors: Effects on Activity in the Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis 2.1 Acute Responses to Stress 2.2 Adaptations to Intermittent Stimuli 2.3 Adaption to Chronic, Sustained Stimuli 3 Corticosteroids, Stress, and Energy Balance 3.1 Energy Acquisition 3.2 Energy Disposition 4 Chronic Stress in Humans

Prevention and Correction of Hypoglycemia

Abstract: Hypoglycemia is the limiting factor in the glycemic management of diabetes because it generally precludes maintenance of euglycemia. Improving glycemic control while minimizing hypoglycemia in type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) and advanced type 2 diabetes (T2DM) involves both application of the principles of aggressive therapy—patient education and empowerment, frequent self-monitoring of blood glucose, flexible insulin regimens, individualized glycemic goals, and ongoing professional guidance and support—and implementation of hypoglycemia risk reduction.

Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Glycogen 1.1 Structure 1.2 Function 2 Pathways of Glycogen Metabolism 2.1 Overview 2.2 Glycogen Biosynthesis 2.3 Glycogen Synthase and Branching Enzyme 2.4 Glycogenolysis and Debranching Enzyme 2.5 Glycogen Particles and Physical Interactions among Glycogen-Metabolizing Proteins 3 Hormonal Regulation of Glycogen Synthesis in Muscle 3.1 Insulin 3.2 Mechanisms of Insulin Action 3.3 Epinephrine 4 Regulation of Glycogen Metabolism in Liver 4.1 Overview 4.2 Two Pathways of Glycogen Synthesis in Liver 4.3 Glucose Transport Is Not Regulated in Liver 4.4 Regulation of Glucokinase Activity 4.5 Regulation of Glycogen Synthase Activity 4.6 Regulation of Glucose-6-Phosphatase Activity 4.7 Regulation of Glycogen Phosphorylase Activity 5 Conclusion

Development of Individual Differences in Behavioral and Endocrine Responses to Stress: Role of the Postnatal Environment

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Stress Response 2 Environmental Regulation of Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Development 2.1 Effects of Handling (or Infantile Stimulation) 2.2 Effects of Prolonged Periods of Maternal Separation 2.3 Effects of Neonatal Endotoxin Exposure 3 Summary of Early Environmental Effects 3.1 Effects of Handling on Chronic Responses to Stress 3.2 Acute Stress Responses in Handled and Nonhandled Rats: Revisited 4 Summary 5 Biological Significance 6 Early Environmental Effects: The Levine Maternal Mediation Hypothesis 6.1 Stability of Individual Differences in Maternal Behavior 6.2 Transmission of Individual Differences in Maternal Care to Offspring 6.3 Mode of Transmission: Genomic or Nongenomic? 7 Conclusions

Role of Endogenous Glucocorticoids in Immune System Function: Regulation and Counterregulation

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 In Vivo Versus in Vitro Glucocorticoids 2 Natural Versus Synthetic Glucocorticoids 2.1 Corticosteroid Receptor Subtypes 2.2 Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin 3 Physiological Versus Nonphysiological Concentrations of Glucocorticoids 4 Factors Regulating Immune Cell Exposure to Glucocorticoids 4.1 Factors in the Absence of Immune Challenge 4.2 Factors in the Presence of Immune Challenge 5 Direct Effects of Glucocorticoids on Immune Cells 5.1 Molecular Features of Intracellular Glucocorticoid Receptors 5.2 Regulatory Effects of Glucocorticoids on the Expression of Immunologically Important Genes 5.3 Possible Alternative Mechanisms of Glucocorticoid Action 6 Strategies for Assessing the Role of Endogenous Glucocorticoids in Immune System Function 6.1 Circadian Studies 6.2 Stress Studies 6.3 In Vivo Secretagogue Stimulation Studies 6.4 Adrenalectomy and Glucocorticoid Replacement Studies 6.5 Other More Selective Manipulations of Glucocorticoid Action 7 Glucocorticoid Effects on Immune Subsystems 7.1 Immune Cell Maturation, Differentiation, and Turnover 7.2 Immune Cell Trafficking 7.3 Inflammation 7.4 Septic Shock 7.5 T helper 1 and T helper 2 Response 7.6 Antibody Production 7.7 Cytotoxicity and Delayed Type Hypersensitivity 8 General Models of Glucocorticoid Regulation of the Immune System 8.1 Counterregulatory Role of Glucocorticoids 8.2 Regulatory Role of Glucocorticoids 8.3 Regulatory Role of Glucocorticoids During Stress 8.4 Bidirectional Regulatory Effects of Glucocorticoids

Development of the Hypothalamic‐Pituitary‐Adrenal Axis and the Stress Response

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Ontogeny of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis 11 Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus 12 Pituitary Function 13 Adrenal Function 14 Glucocorticoid Feedback 15 Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Function and Stress Responsiveness in Development 2 Conclusions

Physiological and Pathophysiological Implications of Social Stress in Mammals

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Social Subordinance as an Environmental Stressor 1.1 Varieties of Hierarchical Ranking Systems among Mammals 1.2 What Is Stressful about Having a Particular Social Rank in a Hierarchy? 2 The Adrenocortical Axis 3 Cardiovascular Function and Disease 4 Reproductive Physiology 4.1 Females 4.2 Males 5 Immunity 6 Limits to the Importance of Rank 6.1 The Societal Context of Rank 6.2 The Personal Experience of Rank 6.3 Personality 7 Conclusions and Relevance to Humans

Insulin Resistance, Compensatory Hyperinsulinemia, and Coronary Heart Disease: Syndrome X Revisited

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Terminology 2 Insulin Resistance Versus Compensatory Hyperinsulinemia 3 Nature Versus Nurture in The Development of Syndrome X 3.1 Ethnicity 3.2 Obesity: Overall and Regional 3.3 Habitual Physical Activity 3.4 Smoking 3.5 Alcohol 4 Glucose Intolerance 5 Dyslipidemia 5.1 Relationship between Insulin Resistance, Compensatory Hyperinsulinemia, Increased Hepatic VLDL-TG Secretion and Hypertriglyceridemia 5.2 Abnormalities Associated with Hypertriglyceridemia 6 Hemostatic System 7 Syndrome X and High Blood Pressure 8 Uric Acid 9 Microalbuminuria is not The “Cause” of Syndrome X! 10 Conclusion: Syndrome X and Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) 10.1 Glucose Intolerance 10.2 Hypertriglyceridemia 10.3 Hypertension

Substrate Control of Insulin Release

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Cellular Architecture of Pancreatic Islets 2 General Aspects of Nutrient Sensing 3 The Glucose-Sensing System: A Basic Model 4 Adenine Nucleotides and the Adenosine Triphosphate–Sensitive Potassium Channel 5 Regulation of Glucose Metabolism in Islet β Cells 6 Molecular Manipulations of Glucose-Phosphorylating Activity in Islet Cells 7 Similarities and Differences in the Metabolic Environment of β Cells and Hepatocytes 8 Role of Lipids in Regulation of Insulin Secretion 9 Fundamentals of Amino Acid-Stimulated Insulin Release 10 Mitochondria as Metabolic Signal Generators of Fuel-Stimulated β Cells 11 Outlook

Control of Glucose Production in vivo by Insulin and Glucagon

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Assessment of Glucose Production in vivo 2 Glucagon and Glucose Production 2.1 Effects of Basal Glucagon 2.2 Effects of Increments in Glucagon 3 Insulin and Glucose Production 3.1 Effects of Insulin Deficiency 3.2 Effects of Increases in Insulin 3.3 Integration of Insulin and Glucagon's Effects

Insulin and Protein Metabolism

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Molecular Basis of Insulin Action on Protein Metabolism 1.1 Protein Synthesis 1.2 Protein Breakdown 1.3 Transmembrane Amino Acid Transport 2 Physiological Effects of Insulin at the Whole-Body Level 3 Effects of Insulin on Muscle Tissue 4 Physiological Effects of Insulin on Other Tissues 4.1 Liver 4.2 Gut 4.3 Heart 4.4 Skin 5 Effect of Insulin on Transport in vivo 6 Insulin Resistance 6.1 Diabetes 6.2 Critical Illness 7 Exercise 8 Conclusion

Regulation of Muscle Glucose Uptake In Vivo

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Methodologies for Measurement of Skeletal Muscle Glucose Uptake 1.1 Theories of Metabolic Control 1.2 Kinetic Theory of Intact Organs 1.3 Arteriovenous Differences 1.4 Muscle Biopsies 1.5 Positron Emission Tomography 1.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 1.7 Multiple Tracer Dilution Technique 1.8 Measurement of Whole Body Glucose Metabolism 2 Mechanism of Insulin Action at Skeletal Muscle 2.1 Insulin Signaling In Vivo 2.2 Glucose Transport and Phosphorylation in Skeletal Muscle 2.3 Glycogen Synthesis, Glycolysis, and Glucose Oxidation in Skeletal Muscle 2.4 Effect of Insulin on Blood Flow 2.5 Transport of Insulin Across the Endothelial Barrier Time-Limiting Steps in Insulin Action 2.6 Modulation of Insulin-Stimulated Skeletal Muscle Glucose Uptake by Nonesterified Fatty Acid Availability 3 Exercise and Muscle Glucose Uptake 3.1 Mechanism of the Exercise-Induced Increase in Muscle Glucose Uptake 3.2 Modulation of Glucose Uptake by the Working Muscle by the Internal Milieu 3.3 Muscle Glucose Uptake in the Postexercise State 4 Conclusion

Pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Insulin Secretion in T2DM 1.1 Fasting Insulin Concentration 1.2 Glucose-Stimulated Insulin Secretion 1.3 Other Abnormalities in Insulin Secretion in T2DM 2 Mechanisms of Impaired Insulin Secretion 2.1 Glucose Toxicity 2.2 Lipotoxicity 2.3 Other Mechanisms of Impaired Insulin Secretion in T2DM 3 Impaired Insulin Secretion: Primary Genetic Defect Responsible for Type 2 Diabetes 3.1 Prospective Studies 3.2 Studies in First-Degree Relatives 3.3 Studies in Twins 3.4 Subjects with History of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus 4 Hypersecretion of Insulin as the Cause of Type 2 Diabetes: A New Hypothesis 5 Summary: Insulin Secretion in T2DM 6 Insulin Sensitivity in Type 2 Diabetes 6.1 Site of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes 6.2 Fasting Hyperglycemia: Role of Pancreas, Muscle and Liver 6.3 Postprandial Hyperglycemia: Lessons from the Oral Glucose Tolerance Test 7 Dynamic Interaction Between Insulin Sensitivity and Insulin Secretion in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 8 Cellular Mechanisms of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes 8.1 Overview of Insulin Action 8.2 Insulin Receptor/Insulin Receptor Signal Transduction Defects 8.3 Glucose Transport 8.4 Glucose Phosphorylation 8.5 Glycogen Synthesis 8.6 Glycolysis/Glucose Oxidation 9 Metabolic, Hemodynamic, Endocrine, and Cytokine Abnormalities in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 9.1 Glucose Toxicity 9.2 Lipid Oxidation and Insulin Resistance 9.3 Skeletal Muscle Capillary Density, Fiber Type and Endothelial Transport 9.4 Blood Flow 9.5 Amylin and Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide 9.6 Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha 9.7 Acquired Determinants of Insulin Resistance 10 Summary of Insulin Resistance in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus 11 Genetic Defects 12 Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: Summary and Synthesis 12.1 Primary Defect in Insulin Sensitivity 12.2 Primary Defect in Insulin Secretion? 12.3 Combined Defects in Insulin Sensitivity and Insulin Secretion 13 Conclusion

Coping with Danger: The Neural Basis of Defensive Behavior and Fearful Feelings

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Fear Conditioning 2 The Neural System Mediating Conditioned Fear Responses 2.1 Input Pathways 2.2 Output Pathways 3 Assessing Dangerous Environmental Contexts 4 Cortical Control of Fearful and Defensive Behavior 5 Fear Conditioning in Humans 6 Cellular Mechanisms Involved in Fear Conditioning 6.1 Electrophysiological Studies 6.2 Long-Term Potentiation 7 Stress and Fear Circuits 8 From Evolutionary Reaction to Cognitive Coping 9 Defensive Behaviors and Fearful Feelings 10 Summary

Neurobiology of Interpreting and Responding to Stressful Events: Paradigmatic Role of the Hippocampus

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Physiological Stress Responses 1.1 What Systems Respond to Stressors? 1.2 Habituation and Sensitization 1.3 Psychosocial Stressors 2 Plasticity and Adaptation in the Central Nervous System: Hippocampus 2.1 Role of the Hippocampus in Behavioral and Neuroendocrine Adaptation 2.2 Plasticity of the Hippocampus 3 Hippocampal Neuronal Morphology is Altered by Hibernation, Chronic Stress, and Aging 3.1 Pharmacological Manipulations of Dendritic Atrophy 3.2 Mechanism of Dendritic Atrophy and Role of Adrenal Steroids 3.3 Hippocampal Neuronal Damage Resulting from Chronic Stress and Aging 3.4 Structural Changes in the Human Hippocampus 3.5 Stress Effects on Cognitive Performance in Rodents and Humans 3.6 Life-Long Implications of Stressful Experiences 4 The Price of Adaptation: Allostasis and Allostatic Load 4.1 Definitions 4.2 Anticipation and Behavior in Allostatic Load 4.3 Four Types of Allostatic Load 4.4 Individuals versus Groups 4.5 Measurement of Allostatic Load 5 Conclusions

Sympathetic Nervous System Physiology and Pathophysiology in Coping with the Environment

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Homeostatic Systems and Principles of Their Operation 1.1 Negative Feedback 1.2 Multiple Effectors and Effector Sharing 1.3 Resetting 2 Physiology of the Sympathetic Nervous System 2.1 Sympathetic Nerve Function 3 Sympathetic Nervous System Responses in Coping with the External and Internal Environment 3.1 Ontogeny 3.2 Changes in Sympathetic Function with Normal Aging 3.3 Circadian Rhythms 3.4 Orthostasis and Weightlessness 3.5 Exercise 3.6 Mental Challenge or Active Attention 3.7 Metabolism and Energy Balance 4 Sympathetic Function in Disease States 4.1 Sympathetic Neurocirculatory Dysfunction or Failure 4.2 Myocardial Ischemia and Infarction 4.3 Congestive Heart Failure 4.4 Other Conditions 5 Conclusion

Regulation of Protein Metabolism in Muscle

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Efficiency of Protein Synthesis: Translational Control 1.1 Role of Insulin in the Regulation of Translation Initiation 1.2 Interactive Roles of Insulin and Amino Acids in the Regulation of Translation Initiation 1.3 Interactive Roles of Insulin and Other Hormones in the Regulation of Protein Synthesis in Skeletal Muscle 2 Capacity for Protein Synthesis: Ribosomal Biogenesis 2.1 Role of Insulin in the Regulation of rRNA Gene Transcription 2.2 Role of Insulin in the Regulation of Synthesis of Ribosomal Proteins 3 Protein Degradation 3.1 The Lyosomal System 3.2 Calcium Activated Proteinases 3.3 The Ubiquitin-Proteasome System 4 Future Perspectives

Interactions Between the Hypothalamic‐Pituitary‐Adrenal Axis and Immune System During Viral Infection: Pathways for Environmental Effects on Disease Expression

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Immune Responses to Viral Infection 1.1 Early Innate Immunity 1.2 Late Adaptive Immunity 2 Pathology During Viral Infection 2.1 Cell-Mediated Pathology 2.2 Cytokine-Mediated Pathology 3 Cytokine Pathways for Glucocorticoid Induction During Viral Infection [“Starting the Loop”] 3.1 Glucocorticoid Induction during Viral Infection 3.2 Cytokines and Glucocorticoid Induction during Viral Infection 4 Central Nervous System/Neuroendocrine Pathways for Glucocorticoid Induction During Viral Infection (“Making the Connection”) 4.1 Pathways by which Peripheral Cytokine Signals Reach the Brain 4.2 Cytokine Network in the Central Nervous System 4.3 Cytokines and Behavior 5 Viral Infection, Glucocorticoid Availability, and Glucocorticoid Receptor Expression and Function (“Delivering and Receiving The Signal”) 5.1 Corticosteroid-Binding Globulin and 11β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase 5.2 Glucocorticoid Receptor Changes during Viral Infection 5.3 Cytokines as Potential Mediators of Glucocorticoid Receptor Changes during Viral Infection 6 Endogenous Glucocorticoids and Host Responses to Viral Infection (“Shaping The Response, Protection, and Closing the Loop”) 6.1 Impact of Stress on Immune Responses to Viral Infection 6.2 Glucocorticoids as the Mediator of Stress Effects on Viral Immunity 7 Summary

Regulation of Glucose Transporters by Insulin and Exercise: Cellular Effects and Implications for Diabetes

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Properties of the Glucose Transporter Families 1.1 The GLUT Family 2 Acute Regulation of Glucose Transporters by Insulin-Responsive Tissues 2.1 The Glucose Transporter Recruitment Hypothesis 2.2 Insulin-Responsive Glucose Transporters 2.3 Testing and Verification of the Recruitment Hypothesis 3 Biochemical Characteristics of The Glut-4-Containing Organelle 3.1 Resident Proteins 3.2 Proteins Involved in Vesicle Docking and Fusion 3.3 Low-Molecular-Weight G Proteins 4 Insulin Signals Involved in The Mobilization of Glucose Transporters 4.1 Testing the Participation of a Signaling Pathway 5 Effects of Prolonged Exposure to Insulin on the Glucose Transporters 6 Regulation of Glucose Transporters by Exercise 6.1 Effects of Exercise In Vivo: Roles of Hypoxia, Blood Flow, and Muscle Fiber Composition 6.2 Glucose Transporters in Exercised Muscles 6.3 Signaling Mechanism of Contraction-Induced Glucose Transport 7 Glucose Transporters in Diabetes 7.1 Glucose Transporters in Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus 7.2 Glucose Transporters in Obesity and Non-Insulin-Dependent Diabetes Mellitus 7.3 Proposed Mechanisms Leading to Impaired GLUT-4 Translocation in Diabetes 7.4 GLUT-4 Translocation Defect: Primary or Acquired? 7.5 Effects of Antidiabetic Drugs on Glucose Transporters 8 Lessons from the Manipulation of Glucose-Transporter Expression by Transgenic Mouse Approaches and Natural Mutations 8.1 GLUT-1 Overexpression in Muscle 8.2 GLUT-4 Overexpression in Tissues of Natural Expression 8.3 Selective Overexpression of GLUT-4 in Muscle 8.4 GLUT-4 Overexpression in Fat 8.5 GLUT-4 Ablation 8.6 A Naturally Occurring Genetic Abnormality in GLUT-1 Expression 9 Concluding Remarks

Hormones, Cytokines, and Sleep

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Sleep-Related Hormone Changes 2 Rhythms of Hormones 2.1 The Somatotropic Axis 2.2 Corticotropin-Glucocorticoid Axis 2.3 Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone-Thyroid Axis 2.4 The Gonadotropins-gonad Axis 2.5 Prolactin 2.6 Melatonin 2.7 Renin (Angiotensin)-Aldosterone System 2.8 Other Hormones 3 Effects of Hormones on Sleep 3.1 Somatotropic Axis 3.2 Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone-Corticotropin Axis 3.3 Thyroid Hormones 3.4 Gonadotropins 3.5 Prolactin and Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide 3.6 Vasopressin 3.7 Steroid Hormones 3.8 Melatonin 3.9 Gastrointestinal Hormones 4 Cytokines 5 Infection and Sleep 6 Effects of Cytokines on Sleep 6.1 Interleukin-1 6.2 Tumor Necrosis Factor 6.3 Interferons 6.4 Fibroblast Growth Factor 6.5 IL-10, IL-2, and IL-6 7 Links Between the Effects of Cytokines and Hormones on Sleep 8 Conclusion

Insulin and Glucagon Secretion in vivo and its Neural Control

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Anatomy of the Endocrine Pancreas 1.1 Islet Cell Types 1.2 Vascular Supply 1.3 Innervation 2 Acute Regulation of Secretion 2.1 Secretion During Feeding 2.2 Secretion During Hypoglycemia 3 Chronic Adaptation of Secretion 3.1 Fasting 3.2 Obesity 3.3 Pregnancy 3.4 Partial β-Cell Loss or Dysfunction 3.5 Human Diabetes Mellitus 4 Summary and Conclusion

Production, Action, and Degradation of Somatostatin

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Anatomical Distribution of Somatostatin Cells 11 Localization 12 Pancreatic Somatostatin Cells 2 Biosynthesis, Processing, and Intracellular Targeting 21 Somatostatin Genes and Gene Products 3 Regulation of Islet Somatostatin 31 Regulation of Secretion 32 Regulation of Gene Expression 4 Actions and Mechanism of Action of Somatostatin 41 Islet Cell Actions 42 Extra-Islet Actions 43 Somatostatin Agonists 44 Somatostatin Receptors 5 Metabolism of Somatostatin 6 Circulating Somatostatin 7 Islet Somatostatin Function 71 Paracrine Regulation 72 Regulation via the Microcirculation 73 Gap Junctional Coupling 74 Independent Regulation by Somatostatin-14 and Somatostatin-28 8 Somatostatin and Diabetes 81 Experimental Insulinopenic Diabetes 82 Experimental Hyperinsulinemic Diabetes 83 Human Diabetes 9 Concluding Remarks

Insulin Receptor Tyrosine Kinase

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Insulin Receptor Structure 1.1 Insulin Binding 1.2 Receptor Endocytosis Motifs 1.3 Tyrosine Kinase Characteristics 2 Insulin Receptor Substrates 2.1 Pleckstrin Homology Domains 2.2 Phosphotyrosine-Binding Domains 2.3 Src Homology 2 Domains

Regional Neural Regulation of Immunity: Anatomy and Function

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 The Autonomic Nervous System 1.1 Overview 1.2 Central Control 1.3 Terminal Distribution of Fibers 1.4 Summary 2 The Neuroendocrine System 3 The Immune System 4 Acute-Phase Response 5 Innervation of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Immune Tissues 5.1 Primary Immune Tissues 5.2 Thymus Innervation 5.3 Secondary Immune Tissues 5.4 Tertiary Immune Tissues 5.5 Summary 6 Summary and Conclusions

Actions of Corticotropin on the Adrenal Cortex: Biochemistry and Cell Biology

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Response to Stress 2 Diurnal Rhythm 3 Biosynthetic Pathway: Cholesterol Cortisol 3.1 Cytochromes P450 4 Action of Corticotropin on Synthesis of Cortisol 4.1 The Corticotropin Receptor 4.2 Second Messengers 5 Locus of Action of Corticotropin and Cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate 6 Transport of Steroidogenic Cholesterol to Inner Mitochondrial Membrane 6.1 Action of Lipase 6.2 Transport of Cholesterol and Lipid Droplets to Mitochondria 7 Transport of Cholesterol Within Mitochondria: Outer to Inner Membrane 8 Additional Responses to Corticotropin 8.1 Synthesis of Slowly Responding Proteins Connected with Steroid Synthesis 8.2 Cytochromes P450 8.3 Electron Carriers 8.4 P450 Genes 9 Other Proteins 9.1 Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor 9.2 SCP2 10 Phosphorylation of Proteins 11 Phospholipids 12 Influence of Growth Factors in Responses to Corticotropin 13 Conclusion

Sepsis‐induced Changes in Pancreatic Hormone Secretion

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Alterations in Insulin Concentration, Secretion, and Clearance 1.1 Hemorrhage and Acute Blood Loss 1.2 Thermal Injury 1.3 Traumatic Injury 1.4 Bacterial Infection 1.5 Endotoxin and Related Insults 1.6 Summary 2 Alterations in Glucagon Concentration, Secretion, and Clearance 2.1 Hemorrhage and Acute Blood Loss 2.2 Thermal Injury 2.3 Traumatic Injury 2.4 Bacterial Infection 2.5 Endotoxin and Related Insults 2.6 Summary 3 Stress-Induced Changes in Other Pancreatic Hormones 3.1 Amylin 3.2 Somatostatin 3.3 Pancreatic Polypeptide 4 Impact of Trauma-Induced Changes in Glucagon and Insulin on Metabolism

Insulin Gene Transcription: Factors Involved in Cell Type–Specific and Glucose-Regulated Expression in Islet β Cells are Also Essential During Pancreatic Development

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Insulin Gene Expression 2 Principal Factors Regulating Insulin Gene Transcription 2.1 C2 Element 2.2 Z-Element Region 2.3 A Elements 2.4 C1/RIPE3b1 Element 2.5 E Element 2.6 Other Key Pancreatic Cell Transcriptional Regulators 3 Targeted Disruption of Insulin Transcriptional Activators 3.1 PDX-1 in Pancreatic Islet and Exocrine Cell Development 3.2 Isl-1, Pax-6, Pax-4, and BETA2/NeuroD in Islet Endocrine Cell Development 3.3 Other Transcription Factors Necessary for Islet Cell Development 4 Factors Regulating pdx-1 Gene Transcription 5 New Perspectives 6 Summary

The Aging Pancreas: Effects of Aging on Insulin Secretion and Action

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Age and Body Composition 2 Association of Age to Fasting Glucose and Insulin 3 Insulin Action (Animal Studies) 3.1 Maturation and Glucose Transport 3.2 GLUT-4 and Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase 4 Insulin Action (Human Studies) 4.1 Abdominal Obesity and Free Fatty Acids 4.2 Blood Flow 4.3 Physical Activity 4.4 Effects of Diet 5 Insulin Secretion 5.1 Pancreatic Morphology 5.2 Insulin Secretion and Free Fatty Acids 5.3 Relationship with Circulating Glucose and Age 5.4 Glucose Clamp Studies 6 Insulin Clearance 7 Insulin Secretion at The Organ, Islet and Single-Cell Level 7.1 Insulin Secretion In Situ 7.2 Insulin Secretion from Isolated Islets of Langerhans 7.3 Insulin Secretion from Single Beta Cells 7.4 Insulin Genes 7.5 Single Cell Secretion 8 Glucagon 9 Pancreatic Polypeptide 10 Amylin 11 Somatostatin 12 Conclusion

Biosynthesis of Insulin

Abstract: The sections in this article are: 1 Insulin: Properties and Structure 2 Biosynthesis of Insulin 2.1 Structure and Functions of Precursor Forms 2.2 Cell Biology 2.3 Mechanism of Proteolytic Conversion of Proinsulin to Insulin 2.4 Insulin Storage Vesicles 2.5 C Peptide, a Co-secretory Product of the β Cell 3 Regulation of Insulin Biosynthesis 4 The Insulin Gene and its Defects 4.1 Mutations in the Insulin Gene 5 Defects in Insulin Biosynthesis 5.1 Prohormone Convertase Defects 6 Conclusion