Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1993"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe four broad tasks for the design of situated learning: selecting the situations, providing scaffolding, determining and supporting the role of the teacher, and assessing situated learning.
Abstract: The design of situated learning must be closely linked to the ecological psychology of “situated cognition,” as exemplified by problem solving in a complex situated context, the Jasper Series. The extreme view of situated learning contends thatall thinking must be viewed as situated, and is therefore better explained by concepts of perception and action than by the concepts of information processing psychology. In this article, ideas of ecological psychology provide the background for describing four broad tasks for the design of situated learning: selecting the situations, providing scaffolding, determining and supporting the role of the teacher, and assessing situated learning. Further, three metrics for evaluating situated learning are suggested: affording transfer, providing meaning, and providing an anchor for cross-curricular investigation.
465 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the implications of constructivism for instructional systems design (ISD) are summarized as five principles that integrate the affective and cognitive domains of learning In contrast to current views, it is suggested that constructivist philosophy offers instructional designers an alternative set of values that may significantly influence the emphasis of ISD methods without undermining the coherence and consistency of the ISD model.
Abstract: In this article, the implications of constructivism for instructional systems design (ISD) are summarized as five principles that integrate the affective and cognitive domains of learning In contrast to current views, it is suggested that constructivist philosophy offers instructional designers an alternative set of values that may significantly influence the emphasis of ISD methods without undermining the coherence and consistency of the ISD model Distinguishing characteristics of the two approaches are described, based on a review of recent literature The article concludes with the assertion that the influence of constructivist philosophy on ISD should be to focus attention on critical enabling objectives traditionally overlooked by instructional designers
450 citations
TL;DR: relevant research and theory are organized within an overarching framework, and their principles and implications for the design of interactive multimedia are derived.
Abstract: While interest in interactive multimedia continues to grow, thus far its activities have been driven more by technological capacity than research and theory. Typically, guidelines for interactive multimedia design are based not upon empirical evidence, but on the intuitive beliefs of designers. In this article, relevant research and theory are organized within an overarching framework, and their principles and implications for the design of interactive multimedia are derived.
260 citations
TL;DR: Results from numerous studies of design are synthesized to provide a basis for considering instructional design as a type of designing rather than an isolated phenomenon.
Abstract: What do we know about the process of designing instruction? We have a large body of literature and numerous prescriptive models, yet it is not clear that designers actually operate as the literature and models suggest. Other design fields, such as architecture and engineering, have similar concerns, but have acted upon those concerns by systematically investigating design processes. Considering the results of such studies may prove beneficial to instructional designers in terms of promoting critical analysis of processes and decisions and identifying questions and hypotheses for research. In this article, results from numerous studies of design are synthesized to provide a basis for considering instructional design as a type of designing rather than an isolated phenomenon.
170 citations
TL;DR: A comparison of hyper-reference and conventional paper dictionary use on the measures of consultation frequency, study time, efficiency, and comprehension found that efficiency was higher during bilingual dictionary use than during monolingual dictionary use.
Abstract: A hyper-reference is an online electronic aid that provides immediate access to adjunct information with a direct-return path to the target information. Eighty undergraduate foreign language learners participated in a comparison of hyper-reference and conventional paper dictionary use on the measures of consultation frequency, study time, efficiency, and comprehension. Hyper-reference users consulted over two times as many definitions as conventional dictionary users. Analyses of efficiency (consults per minute) found a higher consultation rate for hyper-reference users than for conventional dictionary users. The study also compared bilingual (Spanish/English) and monolingual (Spanish/simplified Spanish) dictionary use. Bilingual dictionary users consulted 25% more definitions than did monolingual dictionary users. Bilingual dictionary users completed reading in 20% less time than monolingual dictionary users. Efficiency was also higher during bilingual dictionary use than during monolingual dictionary use. Differences in comprehension were not significant. Directions for further research and development concerning electronic text and hyper-references are offered.
124 citations
TL;DR: This article investigated factors that influence learners' preconceptions of television, the mental effort they invest in processing a video-based lesson, and their achievement and found that the amount of mental effort learners invest in a mediated lesson influences the quantity and quality of the information they gain from the lesson.
Abstract: Explored in this article are factors that influence learners' preconceptions of television, the mental effort they invest in processing a video-based lesson, and their achievement. It is proposed that learners' preconceptions of the effort required by a medium directly influence the amount of effort they invest in processing a lesson presented through that medium, and that the amount of mental effort learners invest in a mediated lesson influences the quantity and quality of the information they gain from the lesson. Factors that influence learners' preconceptions and mental effort include the characteristics of the media, the characteristics of the task, and the characteristics of the learners. Research findings regarding learners' preconceptions of television and the mental effort expended in processing a video-based lesson are reviewed. Practical implications and issues for future research that arise from the literature are identified.
113 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe a model of map-text learning based on dual-coding theory and focused on activities that take place during working memory operations, and explore the instructional implications of the model.
Abstract: This article reviews research on how geographic maps influence the recall of associated text. Drawing on literature from cartography and educational, experimental, and cognitive psychology, the authors describe a model of map-text learning based on dual-coding theory and focused on activities that take place during working memory operations. The instructional implications of the model are explored, and recommendations for instructional applications are given.
92 citations
TL;DR: Predicting which CMC applications will become prevalent, the resources required to support these applications, and the major obstacles that will need to be overcome showed that Faculty resistance to CMC was identified as the major obstacle.
Abstract: Although applications of computer-mediated communications (CMC) continue to evolve, most colleges and universities have no plan to prepare for future development. In order to develop such a plan, a vision of the future of CMC needs to be formed. This study attempted to create such a vision by predicting which CMC applications will become prevalent, the resources required to support these applications, and the major obstacles that will need to be overcome. To address these issues, faculty around the world who extensively use CMC in instruction participated in an electronic Delphi study. Findings indicated that future CMC applications will be those that support common classroom activities such as sending and receiving assignments and distributing electronic handouts. Network access, new teaching skills, and additional time to integrate CMC into the classroom were identified as the resources required to support these applications. Faculty resistance to CMC was identified as the major obstacle.
90 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of studying alone or in cooperative learning groups on high and average-ability students were investigated for computer-based instruction using either a learner- or program-control version of a lesson.
Abstract: The effects of studying alone or in cooperative learning groups on high- and average-ability students were investigated. Also examined were the effects of completing computer-based instruction using either a learner- or program-control version of a lesson. A total of 175 fourth-grade students were classified as being of high or average ability and randomly assigned to paired or individual treatments stratified by ability. Students completed training to enhance small-group interaction before completing a computer-based tutorial and a posttest. Following cooperative learning, students demonstrated increased achievement and efficiency as well as better attitudes toward both the computer lesson and grouping. Students completed more practice items and examples in program-control treatments than in learner-control treatments. However, the form of lesson control did not affect students' achievement or attitudes.
87 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present implications gleaned from cognitive psychology which are important for the design of micro-computer-based instructional simulations, which are often poorly designed from a psychological standpoint and the learning environment they provide is ineffective at best.
Abstract: The advent of the microcomputer has resulted in an increased interest in the design and use of instructional simulations. This type of simulation has the potential to enhance the transfer of learning by teaching complex mental and procedural tasks in an environment that approximates a real-world setting (Reigeluth & Schwartz, 1989). However, the microcomputer-based instructional simulations being produced today are often poorly designed from a psychological standpoint, and the learning environment they provide is ineffective at best. Information concerning how to specify and implement appropriate instructional designs for this type of learning medium is sparse (Alessi, 1988). This article presents implications gleaned from cognitive psychology which are important for the design of micro-computer-based instructional simulations.
69 citations
TL;DR: The “goodness of fit” between ISD and chaos theory is explored by applying the key concepts of chaos theory to the process of developing an alternative ISD model.
Abstract: In this article, the “goodness of fit” between ISD and chaos theory is explored by applying the key concepts of chaos theory to the process of developing an alternative ISD model. After a brief introduction to chaos theory and an exploration of the limitations of and/or the problems with conventional ISD models, the theoretical implications for developing an alternative ISD model are explored. The assumptions of a conventional ISD model are compared to those of chaos theory and dynamic nonlinear systems in order to derive theoretical implications and recommendations for future research and practice in instructional systems design and development.
TL;DR: The Integrated Task Analysis Model (ITAM), a framework for integrating cognitive and behavioral task analysis methods within the ISD model, is presented and its three analysis stages—progressive cycles of data collection, analysis, and decision making—in three components of expertise: skills, knowledge, and mental models are discussed.
Abstract: Traditional methods for task analysis and training design, such as those embodied in Instructional Systems Development (ISD), decompose jobs into discrete tasks composed of specific action sequences and identify prerequisite knowledge and skills for each task. Although these methods have been effective for designing training for simple procedural skills, they offer little insight for analysis or training of jobs involving complex cognitive skills, which increasingly require training today. Because of this, cognitive considerations need to be incorporated into ISD, particularly in the task analysis phase. Recently, cognitive methods have begun to be used to conduct task analysis for training program development and human-computer system development. In this article, recent developments in cognitive task analysis are reviewed, and The Integrated Task Analysis Model (ITAM), a framework for integrating cognitive and behavioral task analysis methods within the ISD model, is presented. Discussed in detail are ITAM's three analysis stages—progressive cycles of data collection, analysis, and decision making—in three components of expertise: skills, knowledge, and mental models.
TL;DR: Examination of viewer judgments about the readability and studyability of two sets of computer screens confirmed and further defined the existence of evaluative constructs based on visual complexity and organization.
Abstract: This study examined viewer judgments about the readability and studyability of two sets of computer screens: a set of model displays and a set of real screens copied from CAI programs. The purpose was to identify constructs that could guide the design of computer screens used to display information in computer-assisted instruction, hypermedia, or on-line help applications. It also searched for any relationships among viewer preference and viewer field articulation (field-dependence/independence), conceptual style (relational/analytical), and gender. Findings based on multidimensional scaling techniques confirmed and further defined the existence of evaluative constructs based on visual complexity and organization. No generalizable effects for field articulation, conceptual style, or gender differences were found.
TL;DR: This study is the first to examine how well these adaptive methods function in a real-time testing situation and results indicate that the EXSPRT-I significantly reduced test lengths and was highly accurate in predicting mastery.
Abstract: Item response theory (IRT) has most often been used in research on computerized adaptive testing (CAT). Depending on the model used, IRT requires between 200 and 1,000 examinees for estimating item parameters. Thus, it is not practical for instructional designers to develop their own CAT based on the IRT model. Frick improved Wald's sequential probability ratio test (SPRT) by combining it with normative expert systems reasoning, referred to as an EXSPRT-based CAT. While previous studies were based on re-enactments from historical test data, the present study is the first to examine how well these adaptive methods function in a real-time testing situation. Results indicate that the EXSPRT-I significantly reduced test lengths and was highly accurate in predicting mastery. EXSPRT is apparently a viable and practical alternative to IRT for assessing mastery of instructional objectives.
TL;DR: How electronic information resources can be designed to promote higher-level learning through enhancing students' opportunities to process, evaluate, and apply the information they retrieve from these resources is suggested.
Abstract: This article reports on a naturalistic study of online and CD-ROM databases to identify design characteristics that are important to high school students' use of these information resources for higher-level learning as well as for information access and retrieval. Primary data collection techniques were interactive observations of 92 students and informal interviews with 54 students, 4 teachers, and the school library media specialist. The article presents an inventory of specific problems students experienced while using 7 CD-ROM and 18 online databases and discusses implications for database design based on the study results. By showing how the lens of instructional systems design can be applied to the study of a specific information technology, this article provides a new perspective on database design and suggests how electronic information resources can be designed to promote higher-level learning through enhancing students' opportunities to process, evaluate, and apply the information they retrieve from these resources.
TL;DR: A basic development model for an intelligent tutoring system (ITS) is described: the interface, the student model, the expert model, and the pedagogical model to illustrate the possibilities for more extensive integration of cognitive learning theories into computer-based instruction.
Abstract: This article describes a basic development model for an intelligent tutoring system (ITS): the interface, the student model, the expert model, and the pedagogical model. Because ITSs are a byproduct of research in cognitive science, we use this model to illustrate the possibilities for more extensive integration of cognitive learning theories into computer-based instruction (CBI). Two examples of CBI designed from this perspective are included to illustrate the possibilities of the model and to suggest that the dichotomy between CBI and ITSs need not be perpetuated.
TL;DR: The authors examined the effectiveness of one configuration of automatic speech recognition (ASR) software and hardware with a child sample of 36 three-year-olds and a comparison sample of 20 adults.
Abstract: The present study examined the effectiveness of one configuration of automatic speech recognition (ASR) software and hardware with a child sample of 36 three-year-olds and a comparison sample of 20 adults. Subjects used a speaker-dependent, template-based system to play a simple “Sesame Street” naming game. Results indicated that while the system performed well with adults, it was much less effective with children. An analysis of the children's performances indicates that children's speech is more variable, in both volume and content, than that of adults. The ASR system responded ineffectively to this variability, resulting in inferior performance. Specific behaviors and their effects on the ASR system are identified, and possible system modifications that address these behaviors are noted.
TL;DR: The findings lead to the conclusion that hypermedia designers will have to make choices between promoting exploration and reducing screen readability.
Abstract: Strategies for managing information in a hypermedia learning environment require the text to carry indicators that describe the presence and type of additional information available from a specific point on a computer text screen. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of link display strategy and link density on ease of use and measures of interaction. Independent variables were link strategy (three levels) and link density (two levels), yielding six treatment groups (n = 108). Within-subjects variables were time interval and type of elaboration accessed. Dependent measures were time spent on elaborations, number of elaborations accessed, and ease of use. Primary findings were that indicating all elaborations by common link indicators in the text reduced readability and led to more extensive and random browsing behavior in users; that indicating elaborations by destination-specific link indicators in the text reduced readability and increased users' tendency to target specific elaborations; and that locating link indicators in submenus increased ratings on ease of use but drastically reduced the number of elaborations accessed and time spent reading elaborations. These findings lead to the conclusion that hypermedia designers will have to make choices between promoting exploration and reducing screen readability.
TL;DR: Practicing Spoken French (PSF), a multimedia program designed to assess the effects of subtitled video on oral communicative performance of fifth-semester college students of French, is developed and evaluated.
Abstract: Reported in this article are the development and evaluation ofPracticing Spoken French (PSF), a multimedia program designed to assess the effects of subtitled video on oral communicative performance of fifth-semester college students of French. The rationale for the development of an alternative to current computer-based initiatives for speaking practice is presented. This is followed by a description of three aspects of the PSF program: design, visual input, and technical features. The results of the field test conducted with PSF are presented, and the strengths and limitations of the program are discussed. Implications and recommendations are offered for computer-assisted language learning (CALL) design and research.
TL;DR: This paper found that the interpretation of the diagrams was largely determined by syntactic rules of English, and that conflict between the sense of English and a diagram's spatial arrangement makes consistent interpretation unlikely.
Abstract: In two experiments, subjects received problem sets consisting of a simple diagram accompanied by two sentences and were asked to select the sentence that best expressed the meaning of the diagram. Each diagram showed a relationship between two concepts. The relationships were category membership, possession of a property, and causality. The relative placement of the concepts was varied. In the first experiment, the concepts were given nonsense names. Significant biases in response frequencies were found, suggesting that, in the absence of semantic content, the interpretation of the diagrams was largely determined by syntactic rules of English. In the second experiment, similar biases were found for diagrams whose concepts were given English names. However, the biases were less evident when the diagrams violated the rules of English syntax. This suggested that conflict between the sense of English and a diagram's spatial arrangement makes consistent interpretation unlikely. Conclusions are drawn concerning the relationships between the spatial arrangement of diagrams and the meaning of relationships among concepts stated in sentences. Suggestions for diagram design are offered.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose a new evaluation procedure for information retrieval and use in professional development schools, where university faculty join school teachers in joint efforts to restructure learning environments.
Abstract: Part of the vision of school reform is to reconstruct schools as “learning communities” in which students and teachers pursue topics of interest. Computers can provide powerful tools for students in learning communities where inquiry, data gathering, interpretation, thinking, and judgment take place. Changing beliefs in educational goals and great support for teachers will be necessary if we are to realize the potential of computers in restructured classrooms. The greatest possibilities exist in new “Professional Development Schools,” where university faculty join school teachers in joint efforts to restructure learning environments. New evaluation procedures are also needed if competencies associated with information retrieval and use are to be assessed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a naturalistic study conducted with 24 low-achieving high school Biology students was used to determine how the teacher and students used two different computer-based instructional programs on frog anatomy and dissection, and how students conducted a subsequent dissection.
Abstract: This article reports on a naturalistic study conducted with 24 low-achieving high school Biology students. Observations and interviews were used to determine how the teacher and students used two different computer-based instructional programs on frog anatomy and dissection, and how students conducted a subsequent dissection. Student and teacher opinions were solicited about the different computer-based programs and the dissection laboratory. Findings suggest that dissection can be a valuable learning experience for low-achieving Biology students when they are engaged in group cooperation and interaction and receive adequate instructional preparation. Results also point to the motivation these students exhibit toward computer use, to the importance of balancing learner and program control, and to the value of considering the teacher as a possible source of both interaction and structure during courseware use. Recommendations based on these and other findings are offered for educators and instructional developers.
TL;DR: The potential of educational television to elicit such behavior is investigated by reviewing research on the Square One TV television series as mentioned in this paper, which can promote mathematical behavior directly among its target audience of 8- to 12-year-olds.
Abstract: The current reform movement in mathematics education has called for new ways of teaching that encourage children to become active participants in mathematical problem solving. In this article, the potential of educational television to elicit such behavior is investigated by reviewing research on theSquare One TV television series. A sizable body of evidence indicates that, through viewer participation,Square One TV can promote mathematical behavior directly among its target audience of 8- to 12-year-olds. Described in the article are the types of viewer participation that have been observed, threeSquare One TV formats that have consistently been found to elicit participative behavior, and several characteristics of these formats that may have been responsible for increased viewer participation. If these characteristics are incorporated into future television-based materials, they may increase the potential of the materials to elicit active participation among viewers.
TL;DR: The National Institute of Education of Singapore (NIE) is in a unique position to develop and research educational products and processes for Singaporean classrooms as mentioned in this paper, however, the opportunities made possible by advances in educational technology will only be realized if teachers are willing and able to utilize these programs and thereby achieve measurable gains in time, productivity, and/or learning outcomes.
Abstract: The National Institute of Education of Singapore is in a unique position to develop and research educational products and processes for Singaporean classrooms. However, the opportunities made possible by advances in educational technology will only be realized if teachers are willing and able to utilize these programs and thereby achieve measurable gains in time, productivity, and/or learning outcomes. With the opportunity for training a majority of the nation's teachers by the year 2000, the NIE can significantly affect the implementation of the vision of an intelligent, information-technology-oriented educational system in Singapore. Ongoing research studies such as those reviewed in this article should provide both theoretical foundations and concrete models for the design of culturally appropriate educational technology programs.
TL;DR: The authors conducted a survey to determine the opinions of a broad-based sample of educational technology professionals and students about the future of our field and the overall results reveal that educational technologists have a positive outlook toward the future field.
Abstract: This study was conducted to determine the opinions of a broad-based sample of educational technology professionals and students about the future of our field. A nationwide sample of 268 university personnel (faculty members, doctoral students, and master's students) and trainers completed a Likert-type survey that contained 30 items covering six topic areas: Educational Technology and Learning Theory, Instructional Design Models, Technology and Individualized Instruction, Advances in Technology, Educational Technology and Schools, and Employment and Job Opportunities. The overall results reveal that educational technologists have a positive outlook toward the future of our field. Opinions were most positive in the areas of Educational Technology and Learning Theory, Employment and Job Opportunities, and Technology and Individualized Instruction, and were least positive in the area of Advances in Technology. There were numerous significant differences of opinion on individual items across the four respondent groups, with the greatest number of differences occurring between faculty members and master's students.
TL;DR: The conditions that prepare the way for integrating computers in the curriculum are being successfully addressed in Japan as discussed by the authors, and more computers will be purchased by the Japanese government in the next year or two.
Abstract: The conditions that prepare the way for integrating computers in the curriculum are being successfully addressed in Japan. Computers have definitely found their way into the classroom, and more computers will be purchased by the Japanese government in the next year or two. The groundwork has also been laid in teacher training and in upgrading the quality of instructional software. The issue now lies in being able to teach not onlyabout computers, but how to teach effectivelywith computers. The next challenge for Japanese education is to focus on policy and efforts aimed at putting the equipment, the software guidelines, and the teacher education programs to work.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the link between attributes of a children's radio program and children's judgments of appeal and found that the Superattributes "Instruction", "Intro Talk", and "Jokes" were negatively associated with children's interest, while "Popular Music" was positively correlated with interest.
Abstract: An approach was developed to investigate the link between attributes of a children's radio program and children's judgments of appeal. Program tapes were divided into 28 segments and were rated for the presence of 30 attributes. Through multidimensional scaling analysis, attributes were organized into six clusters of “Superattributes” on the basis of their co-occurrence across the 28 segments. Superattributes were labeled and assigned scores that reflected the degree to which each was present in the 28 segments. A sample of 42 children 8–12 years old listened to the test tapes and provided a written judgment of their interest in the program at each segment. Results revealed that the Superattributes “Instruction,” “Intro Talk,” and “Jokes” were negatively associated with children's interest, while “Popular Music” was positively correlated with interest. In planning programs and understanding the effects of radio on children, designers and researchers should pay special attention to those formats in radio programming that are familiar to children, especially popular music and instructional material.
TL;DR: Despite their persistent economic ills, the Spanish-speaking areas of the world have managed to successfully cross the threshold into the Information Age as discussed by the authors, and perhaps Spanishspeaking countries will eventually surpass those countries that today are better equipped and trained in computer technology.
Abstract: Despite their persistent economic ills, the Spanish-speaking areas of the world have managed to successfully cross the threshold into the Information Age. As programs and technology such as those described in this article continue to proliferate, perhaps Spanish-speaking countries will eventually surpass those countries that today are better equipped and trained in computer technology. It is not unfeasible to predict that, should the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) finally establish an open market with Mexico, and eventually with other countries of Latin America, the Hispanic world would quickly emerge as one of the prime leaders of the Information Age.