Showing papers in "Journal of Advertising in 2005"

INTERNET USES AND GRATIFICATIONS: A Structural Equation Model of Interactive Advertising

Abstract: This study investigates the interactivity construct in terms of its antecedents (i.e., motivations for using the Internet) and consequences (i.e., attitude toward the site, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention). A structural equation model was developed for an empirical test, based on uses and gratification theory applied to the interactivity context. A sample of 385 college students in the United States and Korea participated in the experiment. The findings suggest that consumers who have high information motivations are more likely to engage in human-message interaction on a Web site, whereas social interaction motivations are more strongly related to human-human interaction. Both human-message and human-human interactions had a positive effect on attitude toward the site, which leads to positive attitude toward the brand and purchase intention.

Sponsorship-linked marketing: opening the black box

Abstract: Sponsorship of sports, arts, and causes has become a mainstream marketing communications tool. A great deal of fieldwork has attempted to gauge the relative effectiveness of sponsorship in a marketing context, but these weakly controlled field studies contribute little to our understanding of how individuals process sponsorship-linked marketing communications. By considering possible underlying information-processing mechanics, individual- and group-level factors, market factors, and management factors, together with theorized sponsorship outcomes, this paper offers a model of consumer-focused sponsorship-linked marketing communications that summarizes and extends theoretical understanding of the topic.

AD SKEPTICISM: The Consequences of Disbelief

Abstract: Three studies investigated the effects of consumer skepticism toward advertising on responses to ads. Consumer skepticism, defined as the tendency toward disbelief of advertising claims (Obermiller and Spangenberg 1998), is measured in each study and then related to various measures of advertising response, including brand beliefs, ad attitudes, responses to informational and emotional appeals, efforts to avoid advertising, attention to ads, and reliance on ads versus other information sources. The results generally support the hypotheses that more skeptical consumers like advertising less, rely on it less, attend to it less, and respond more positively to emotional appeals than to informational appeals.

EFFECTS OF INTERACTIVITY IN A WEB SITE: The Moderating Effect of Need for Cognition

Abstract: This paper examines how consumers process the information available, and what their experiences are, when exposed to an interactive Web site as compared with a noninteractive Web site. The experiment developed analyzes two versions of a Web site in which the capacity to interact with the message has been manipulated. The results show that the interactive Web site leads to more information processing, higher favorability toward the product and the Web site, and greater flow state intensity. In addition, the findings confirm the hypothesized moderating effect of need for cognition on information processing. Implications for new media researchers and practitioners are discussed.

INDIRECT PERSUASION IN ADVERTISING: How Consumers Process Metaphors Presented in Pictures and Words

Abstract: Indirect persuasion attempts are common in magazine advertisements. Although the use of an indirect claim presumably offers some advantage to an advertiser, as yet, little is known about how consumers process different types of indirect claims. We develop the proposition that when consumers are presented with an indirect metaphorical claim, they become more receptive to multiple positive inferences about the advertised brand. In addition, when the indirect metaphorical claim takes the form of a picture, consumers are more likely to spontaneously generate such positive inferences at the time of ad exposure. These ideas are supported in an experiment using response latency data. Because many of the inferences examined in this study could be considered misleading if claimed directly, the paper concludes with a discussion of the public policy implications of the findings.

INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION (IMC) AND BRAND IDENTITY AS CRITICAL COMPONENTS OF BRAND EQUITY STRATEGY: A Conceptual Framework and Research Propositions

Abstract: This paper presents integrated marketing communication (IMC) and brand identity as critical components of the firm's brand equity strategy. Specifically, the authors provide a brand equity strategy schematic that details (1) the role of IMC in creating and maintaining brand equity, and (2) the role of brand identity in informing, guiding, and helping to develop, nurture, and implement the firm's overall IMC strategy. The authors also present a conceptual framework with testable research propositions toward IMC theory development. Finally, a discussion of implications for academics and practitioners is provided, and opportunities for future qualitative and quantitative research are suggested.

LESSONS FROM THE RICH AND FAMOUS: A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Celebrity Endorsement in Advertising

Abstract: Using celebrities to promote products is a popular advertising technique around the world. However, little is known about how the implementation of celebrity endorsement varies according to dominant cultural values. This study content-analyzed television commercials featuring celebrities from two diametrically different countries--the United States and Korea--in terms of two fundamental cultural dimensions: (1) low versus high context, and (2) individualism versus collectivism. Findings of this study suggest that the strategic use and creative executions of celebrity endorsement mirror the respective prevalent cultural orientations in the two countries, although some similarities do exist. Extensive discussion and suggestions for future research are provided.

Banner advertiser-web site context congruity and color effects on attention and attitudes

Abstract: Gaining consumers' attention and generating favorable attitudes are two key advertising objectives. Using two experiments in an on-line environment, we consider the effects of the congruity between the product foci of the advertiser and the Web site, as well as banner color and banner color-text color contrast on measures of attention (i.e., recall and recognition) and attitudes toward the ad and the Web site. Experiment 1 results indicate that incongruity has a more favorable effect on recall and recognition, whereas congruity has more favorable effects on attitudes. Experiment 2 results suggest that when ads generate sufficient attention to gain recall or recognition, moderate congruity offers the most favorable attitudes toward the ad. Managerial implications for the use of these ad execution cues are discussed and future research avenues are proposed.

The relationship between integrated marketing communication, market orientation, and brand orientation

Abstract: This paper relates integrated marketing communication (IMC) to market orientation (MO), brand orientation (BO), and external performance measures The perspective adopted here argues that for clarity of meaning, IMC should be grounded and interpreted with these other concepts in mind Specifically, this paper clarifies the links between IMC, MO, and BO, and proposes a testable model linking the relationships among these concepts and facets of customers, and organizational performance The paper concludes by discussing implications of the study for both academics and practitioners

RECALL AND PERSUASION: Does Creative Advertising Matter?

Abstract: Creativity is an important component of advertising This research examines the potential effectiveness of creative advertising in enhancing recall, brand attitude, and purchase intent Our basic methodology compares a set of randomly selected award-winning commercials (Communication Arts) with a random sample of control commercials The commercials were embedded in television programs and subjects for a naturalistic viewing experience Studies 1 and 2 had aided and unaided brand and execution recall as dependent variables For Study 3, brand attitude and purchase intent were the dependent variables of interest Results indicated that creative commercials facilitate unaided recall, but that creativity did not enhance aided recall, purchase intent, or brand and advertisement attitude The basic advantage of creative advertising in enhancing unaided recall was found to persist over a one-week delay

THE MEDIUM AS A CONTEXTUAL CUE: Effects of Creative Media Choice

Abstract: This paper adds to the research on media-context effects with a study of creative media choice (i.e., creatively choosing a medium to implicitly communicate the message). In an experiment, ads were placed in a creative media choice setting and compared with identical ads in a traditional medium. Employing theories on media-source effects and on cognitive priming and assimilation, it is hypothesized that the creative media choice enhances the perception of target brand associations and increases ad credibility and ad and brand attitudes. The results support the hypotheses. The effects of creative media choice are moderated by congruence, and additional analyses suggest that they may be mediated by surprise.

MOVING INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING RESEARCH FORWARD : A New Research Agenda

Abstract: In introducing the special issue on international advertising, this paper assesses progress made in international research. It begins with an examination of the content of international advertising papers published in the Journal of Advertising during the past ten years. The content of these more recent research articles is then compared to those that appeared earlier in the Journal's history. This paper also surveys four earlier reviews of the international advertising literature and assesses whether issues posed in the reviews have been adequately addressed. A new agenda for international advertising researchers is offered, consisting of eight research questions and some admonitions relating to data collection and collaboration among researchers. The contributions of papers in this issue are then detailed in the context of the proposed research agenda.

The Automatic Country-of-Origin Effects On Brand Judgments

Abstract: An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that country stereotypes can be spontaneously activated by the mere presence of country-of-origin (COO) information in the environment, and they may influence product judgments even when consumers do not intend to base their judgments on COO. Participants learned the attributes of a set of brands from advertisements, and categorized each brand as good or bad by using a simple attribute rule. Results indicate that the accuracy of participants' categorization decisions was influenced by their intentional use of the attribute rule and the country stereotypes that were activated automatically by COO cues presented during categorization. This study also employed the process dissociation procedure to generate quantitative estimates of the two sources of influence. The results provide converging evidence that COO effects occurred automatically and contributed to product evaluations without participants' intention or control.

An empirical investigation of the interaction between publicity, advertising, and previous brand attitudes and knowledge

Abstract: Marketing practitioners and advertising firms have increasingly embraced an integrated marketing communications (IMC) approach to their promotional efforts in order to achieve direct effects of the individual communication tool used, as well as an additional "synergistic" effect from the combination of communications tools used. The present study is designed to fill a gap in the marketing literature by using a controlled experimental design to assess and compare the individual and combined influences of two IMC tools--publicity and advertising--on attitude toward the ad (A ad ) and attitude toward the brand (A b ). The study also looks for synergies from the use of multiple media (radio and print). Findings show that the combined effects of these IMC tools on A ad and A b are not identical, and that there are complex interactions between media, brand familiarity, and the valence of news stories.

Performance auditing of integrated marketing communication (imc) actions and outcomes

Abstract: Proving the value of the integrated marketing communication (IMC) process in its relation to brand outcomes, such as brand awareness, brand loyalty, and sales, are critical issues. The research presented in this paper employs a modified version of the Duncan-Moriarty IMC miniaudit (Duncan and Moriarty 1997) to examine the relationship between the IMC process and brand outcomes. Data were collected from managers in both consumer goods and consumer services organizations. Results demonstrate a positive relationship between the implementation of the IMC process and brand outcomes, and provide encouragement for further research to validate the findings. It was also found that IMC is used more in companies with a market orientation, and in those that encounter a high level of competition.

Managing integrated marketing communication (IMC) through strategic decoupling: how luxury wine firms retain brand leadership while appearing to be wedded to the past

Abstract: Firms increasingly leverage cultural sources of authenticity in their communication strategies to derive competitive advantage and brand value. The management of authenticity presents problems for brand managers. This paper draws on institutional theory by examining how firms deliberately decouple projected images from internal operations to create powerful brand images. The authors explore the strategies of 26 prestige wineries across 5 countries, and find that brand managers deliberately decouple outward images from internal practices, walking a fine line between remaining "true" to important values and real commercial considerations. The findings challenge whether integrated marketing communication (IMC) always requires tight integration with internal operations (the "one voice, one look" view of IMC). Our findings have particular relevance for niche marketers.

CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS OF INTERACTIVITY ON CORPORATE WEB SITES: The United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, and South Korea

Abstract: This study is a cross-cultural examination of interactivity on U.S., U.K., Japanese, and South Korean corporate Web sites. Each Web site was content-analyzed for use of various interactivity functions. Using cultural difference criteria of high versus low context, power distance, and individualism-collectivism, this study compares three dimensions of interactivity on the Web sites of each country's top 50 advertisers. Twenty-five interactivity functions/indicators, classified into three interactivity dimensions, were used in the final data analysis to test three research hypotheses. Our findings indicate that Western Web sites tend to emphasize consumer-message (H1) and consumer-marketer interactivity (H2), whereas Eastern Web sites highlight consumer-consumer interactivity (H3). Implications of the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed.

An alternate approach to assessing cross-cultural measurement equivalence in advertising research

Abstract: This paper offers a new methodological framework to guide researchers attempting to quantitatively assess how a pluralistic audience perceives a standardized television advertisement. Rasch (1960) measurement theory is introduced as an alternative to the more commonly employed multigroup confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) approach to assessing cross-cultural scalar equivalence. By analyzing a multicultural data set, we are able to make various inferences concerning the scalar equivalence of Schlinger's confusion scale. The methodology reveals the limits of the scale, which in all probability would not have been detected using traditional approaches. For researchers attempting to develop new scales, or even to refine existing scales, strict adherence to established guidelines of item generation together with the application of the proposed methodology should ensure better results for both theorists and practitioners.

Self-construal and need-for-cognition effects on brand attitudes and purchase intentions in response to comparative advertising in thailand and the united states

Abstract: This study investigates the moderating roles of self-construal and need for cognition (NFC) on brand attitudes and purchase intentions in response to comparative versus noncomparative advertising. To enhance reliability and external validity, the study is conducted in two culturally and economically distinct countries, Thailand and the United States. Independent self-construal exerts a moderating effect in both countries. Furthermore, as expected, this effect is observed for consumers with low but not high NFC. Unexpectedly, however, for low-NFC consumers, comparative ads are more persuasive among those with low rather than high independent self-construal. Heightened situational involvement, evoked by incongruity between self-construal and ad message structure, appears to be the psychological mediator underlying this effect.

Sociolinguistic effects on code-switched ads targeting bilingual consumers

Abstract: One of the techniques advertisers use to target language minorities (e.g., U.S. Hispanics) is the use of code-switching, or mixing languages within one ad. This paper investigates the consequences of code-switching for ad persuasiveness. The results of two studies suggest that code-switching results in the activation of associations relevant to the language the slogan switches to. Those associations influence the valence of consumers' elaboration such that if the language a slogan switches to possesses positive (negative) associations, consumers engage in positive (negative) elaboration, resulting in higher (lower) evaluations. Attitudinal and contextual variables interact with the effect of code-switching on ad responses.

The brand capability value of integrated marketing communication (imc)

Abstract: Practitioners perpetually question whether they are spending the right amount of money on the right marketing activities to optimize sales, profitability, brand equity, and shareholder value. This perennial problem is perhaps even more salient today, as organizations increasingly begin to recognize the value of intangible assets and question the extent to which marketing should be viewed as an investment (as opposed to an expense). This paper introduces the notion of brand capability within a tangible-intangible asset valuation framework. Specifically, a model is developed to assess the impact of integrated marketing communication on brand equity by leveraging capability-enhancing marketing expenses to economic values through the use of specific combinations of expense-leveraged value indices.

BRAND STRATEGY AND INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATION (IMC): A Case Study of Player’s Cigarette Brand Marketing

Abstract: By reviewing internal corporate documents publicly accessible through Canadian court proceedings, complemented by interviews of advertising practitioners and an assessment of deposition and trial testimony transcripts, the authors provide a case study of how Imperial Tobacco Limited (ITL), which is Canada's largest tobacco manufacturer, effectively employed three critical integrated marketing communication (IMC) practices: strategically consistent brand communication, cross-functional planning and monitoring, and data-driven targeting and communication. By utilizing in-depth consumer research and key IMC processes to construct brand and lifestyle imagery for its flagship cigarette trademark, Player's, ITL achieved greater brand equity and greater shareholder value. The legal and political environment facing the firm has further facilitated ITL's adoption of an IMC mind-set and structure.

CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL ADVERTISING RESEARCH: An Assessment of the Literature Between 1990 and 2002

Abstract: Research in the field of international advertising has produced a large volume of literature. Although some attempts have been made in the past to review this stream of research, there has been no attempt to assess the contributions to this literature by individuals and institutions. This study assesses the contributions of individual researchers and institutions from 1990 to 2002, based on their publications in major advertising, marketing, and international business journals, and the Social Science Citation Index (SSCI). The findings of this study offer researchers a unique view of this field and some directions for future research.

ADVOCACY ADVERTISING FOR BIOTECHNOLOGY: The Effect of Public Accountability on Corporate Trust and Attitude Toward the Ad

Abstract: Organizations whose position in the marketplace depends on increasingly sophisticated technologies are using marketplace advocacy ads to promote acceptance of their products and the processes used to create them. It was hypothesized that for this type of advocacy advertising, (1) public accountability, a construct developed from previous research on advertising credibility and social-psychological theory, would predict corporate trustworthiness, and (2) corporate trustworthiness and attitude toward the advertiser would predict attitude toward the ad. Two components of public accountability were significant predictors of corporate trustworthiness, and trustworthiness and attitude toward the advertiser predicted attitude toward the ad, attitude toward plant biotechnology, and purchase intention.

Visual differences in u.s. and chinese television commercials

Abstract: Television commercials convey much of their power through visuals. Yet little has been done to research visual characteristics in television commercials in different cultural contexts. This study compared the visuals of U.S. and Chinese television commercials within the framework of high-context versus low-context cultures and individualistic versus collectivistic societies. The authors examined how visuals manifested themselves in two sets of variables designed especially for this study: storytelling and cinematography, as well as culture indicators. Results showed that traditional storytelling techniques such as story line and comparison and identification are better vehicles for cultural manifestations than cinematographic variables such as subjective camera, direct address, and pacing. Results on cultural indicators were mixed, however, indicating that values manifested in visuals might not be as simple as first believed.

INTERNATIONAL SERVICES ADVERTISING (ISA): Defining the Domain and Reviewing the Literature

Abstract: The differences between services and goods are generally well understood. These differences, however, suggest that advertising strategies for goods cannot be automatically applied to services. Yet services are the fastest-growing segment of the expanding global market, and to compete effectively across cultural boundaries, these businesses need to understand appropriate marketing and advertising strategies designed especially for services. This paper evaluates the existing literature on international services advertising (ISA) to provide an assessment of the current state of the research on the topic, with a goal of determining specific areas of research inquiry. A comprehensive review of the international services advertising literature from 1970 to 2002 is provided, and directions for future research are offered.

Transforming Consumer Experience: When Timing Matters

Abstract: How advertising can influence or change consumers' product experience has been a topic of great interest to marketers. The majority of research has suggested that advertising received prior to an experience can exert the most influence. In 1999, however, Braun introduced the concept of reconstructive memory, and demonstrated that advertising received after an experience can alter how consumers remember their experience. The issue of which order of framing of an experience through advertising is most influential on consumer memory has not yet been investigated. A constructive memory framework that can take into account both forward- and backward-framing effects and an experiment that tests hypotheses regarding the presentation order of advertising and experience is presented. The implications for the study of transformational advertising are discussed.

Improving media decisions in China a targetability and cost-benefit analysis

Abstract: This study examines two central issues underlying effective media decisions in China. We pay particular attention to the issue in reaching China's upscale and status-seeking consumers and the cost/benefits of so doing. In this study, we analyzed syndicated secondary data involving 48,000 respondents in 15 cities in China, and compared the extent to which television, newspapers, and general and special interest magazines reach particular consumer segments effectively. The study then used a second database containing cost information on media vehicles, and compared their efficiency in reaching segments of upscale/status-seeking consumers in China. As hypothesized, and in accord with findings in developed economies, we found that magazines have the highest targetability among the three most popular mass media. Among special interest magazines, fashion magazines are significantly more costly to advertise in, while they reach the same income segments as travel and business magazines. The implications of these ...