Showing papers in "Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change in 2011"

Adapting to climate change through local municipal planning: barriers and challenges

Abstract: Municipal planning represents a key avenue for local adaptation, but is subject to recognised constraints. To date, these constraints have focused on simplistic factors such as limited resources and lack of information. In this paper we argue that this focus has obscured a wider set of constraints which need to be acknowledged and addressed if adaptation is likely to advance through municipal planning. Although these recognised constraints are relevant, we argue that what underpins these issues are more fundamental challenges affecting local, placed-based planning by drawing on the related field of community-based environmental planning (CBEP). In considering a wider set of constraints to practical attempts towards adaptation, the paper considers planning based on a case study of three municipalities in Sydney, Australia in 2008. The results demonstrate that climate adaptation was widely accepted as an important issue for planning conducted by local governments. However, it was yet to be embedded in planning practice which retained a strong mitigation bias in relation to climate change. In considering the case study, we draw attention to factors thus far under-acknowledged in the climate adaptation literature. These include leadership, institutional context and competing planning agendas. These factors can serve as constraints or enabling mechanisms for achieving climate adaptation depending upon how they are exploited in any given situation. The paper concludes that, through addressing these issues, local, place-based planning can play a greater role in achieving climate adaptation.

Climate adaptation planning in practice: an evaluation of adaptation plans from three developed nations

Abstract: Formal planning for climate change adaptation is emerging rapidly at a range of geo-political scales. This first generation of adaptation plans provides useful information regarding how institutions are framing the issue of adaptation and the range of processes that are recognized as being part of an adaptation response. To better understand adaptation planning among developed nations, a set of 57 adaptation plans from Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States was evaluated against a suite of 19 planning processes identified from existing guidance instruments for adaptation planning. Total scores among evaluated plans ranged from 16% of the maximum possible score to 61%, with an average of 37%. These results suggest adaptation plans are largely under-developed. Critical weaknesses in adaptation planning are related to limited consideration for non-climatic factors as well as neglect for issues of adaptive capacity including entitlements to various forms of capital needed for effective adaptation. Such gaps in planning suggest there are opportunities for institutions to make better use of existing guidance for adaptation planning and the need to consider the broader governance context in which adaptation will occur. In addition, the adaptation options prescribed by adaptation plans reflect a preferential bias toward low-risk capacity-building (72% of identified options) over the delivery of specific actions to reduce vulnerability. To the extent these findings are representative of the state of developed nation adaptation planning, there appear to be significant deficiencies in climate change preparedness, even among those nations often assumed to have the greatest adaptive capacity.

Damage from the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami - A quick report

Abstract: The Tohoku region, Northeast Japan, was hit by a gigantic earthquake which occurred in the Pacific close to Tohoku, and subsequently by a giant tsunami. These hazards have caused huge damage on the eastern coast Japan. The earthquake’s magnitude was 9.0, the strongest ever recorded in Japan. The tsunami was also historical as its run-up height reached over 39 m. As of early May, 2011, over 24 thousand people were reported as dead or missing. Moreover, serious accidents at the Fukushima Nuclear Power Plants No.1 were caused by the effects of the tsunami. Therefore, the damage faced by Japanese people can be seen as a giant composite disaster. Although Japan, and the northeast of Japan in particular, has over a long time period increased its preparedness against earthquakes and tsunamis, huge damage still occurred. This paper considers why this tragedy occurred, and what unrecognized factors contributed to the high vulnerability of the area. To assist in answering such questions, this paper presents a timely report of the features of the earthquake and tsunami, the damage they caused, and the early efforts for recovery and reconstruction.

Building responsiveness to climate change through community based adaptation in Bangladesh

Abstract: This article explores the drivers, benefits, and challenges to climate change adaptation in Bangladesh. It specifically investigates the “Community Based Adaptation to Climate Change through Coastal Afforestation Program,” a 5-year $5 million adaptation scheme being funded and implemented in part by the Government of Bangladesh, United Nations Development Program, and Global Environment Facility. The article explores how the CBACC-CA builds various types of adaptive capacity in Bangladesh and the extent its design and implementation offers lessons for other adaptation programs around the world. The first part of the study begins by describing its research methods consisting of research interviews, site visits, and a literature review. It then summarizes six primary sectors vulnerable to climate change in Bangladesh: water resources and coastal zones, infrastructure and human settlements, agriculture and food security, forestry and biodiversity, fisheries, and human health. The article next describes the genesis and background behind the CBACC-CA, with an emphasis on components that promote capacity development, demonstration projects, risk reduction, and knowledge management. The article concludes that technology by itself is only a partial component of successful adaptation efforts, and that multiple and integrated adaptation measures that cut across sectors and social, institutional, and infrastructural dimensions are needed to truly build resilience and effectiveness.

Food security and climate change in drought-sensitive savanna zones of Ghana

Abstract: Desertification, climate variability and food security are closely linked through drought, land cover changes, and climate and biological feedbacks. In Ghana, only few studies have documented these linkages. To establish this link the study provides historical and predicted climatic changes for two drought sensitive agro-ecological zones in Ghana and further determines how these changes have influenced crop production within the two zones. This objective was attained via Markov chain and Fuzzy modelling. Results from the Markov chain model point to the fact that the Guinea savanna agro-ecological zone has experienced delayed rains from 1960 to 2008 while the Sudan savanna agro-ecological zone had slightly earlier rains for the same period. Results of Fuzzy Modelling indicate that very suitable and moderately suitable croplands for millet and sorghum production are evenly distributed within the two agro-ecological zones. For Ghana to adapt to climate change and thereby achieve food security, it is important to pursue strategies such as expansion of irrigated agricultural areas, improvement of crop water productivity in rain-fed agriculture, crop improvement and specialisation, and improvement in indigenous technology. It is also important to encourage farmers in the Sudan and Guinea Savanna zones to focus on the production of cereals and legumes (e.g. sorghum, millet and soybeans) as the edaphic and climatic factors favour these crops and will give the farmers a competitive advantage. It may be necessary to consider the development of the study area as the main production and supply source of selected cereals and legumes for the entire country in order to free lands in other regions for the production of crops highly suitable for those regions on the basis of their edaphic and climatic conditions.

Coastal livelihood and physical infrastructure in Bangladesh after cyclone Aila

Abstract: This paper aimed at to explore the consequences of cyclone victims due to unavailability of infrastructural supports and to prop up the recognition that the infrastructure has a vital role to play in societies’ resilience during catastrophic situation. The paper begins with a review of the science regarding climate change impact and cyclone disaster in Bangladesh. It emphasizes the consequences of cyclone Aila in a selected coastal community in the remote coastal area. A field survey was conducted by authors during March-August 2009. Eight available infrastructures were selected for this analysis. Uniformity of distribution (R), demand index (Di) and degree of demand (DD) of the selected infrastructures were calculated by using nearest neighbourhood methods of analysis. Results show that based on its specific planning standards none of the selected infrastructure can support 50% of the total population. Accordingly, it was observed that 76% respondent could not reach in safer place due to rush of water intrusion and also because of the inundation of road-network. The nearness to the available cyclone shelter, and place of taking shelter during cyclone is positively correlated (r = 0.38; p < 0.001). However, the poor people had less opportunity to take shelter in cyclone shelters, although none of the respondents groups whose monthly income is above 75 USD stands without any infrastructural support. Such important observation may hint the influence of local elites on the local disaster mitigation planning practice in Bangladesh. Almost 90% of the respondents claimed that they had no access to enter the available cyclone shelter. Furthermore, the damaged infrastructures added more hindrances during post disaster activities and also increased the sufferings of the victims. If there were adequate cyclone shelters or rehabilitation centre, the affected people could take shelter and continue other works temporarily. Results drawn from this research will be useful for local and national level planners, as well as international donors for future disaster mitigation planning in the studied area and the methodology can be applied in similar countries and geographical territories.

Impact of climate change on Indian forests: a dynamic vegetation modeling approach

Abstract: We make an assessment of the impact of projected climate change on forest ecosystems in India. This assessment is based on climate projections of the Regional Climate Model of the Hadley Centre (HadRM3) and the dynamic global vegetation model IBIS for A2 and B2 scenarios. According to the model projections, 39% of forest grids are likely to undergo vegetation type change under the A2 scenario and 34% under the B2 scenario by the end of this century. However, in many forest dominant states such as Chattisgarh, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh up to 73%, 67% and 62% of forested grids are projected to undergo change. Net Primary Productivity (NPP) is projected to increase by 68.8% and 51.2% under the A2 and B2 scenarios, respectively, and soil organic carbon (SOC) by 37.5% for A2 and 30.2% for B2 scenario. Based on the dynamic global vegetation modeling, we present a forest vulnerability index for India which is based on the observed datasets of forest density, forest biodiversity as well as model predicted vegetation type shift estimates for forested grids. The vulnerability index suggests that upper Himalayas, northern and central parts of Western Ghats and parts of central India are most vulnerable to projected impacts of climate change, while Northeastern forests are more resilient. Thus our study points to the need for developing and implementing adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerability of forests to projected climate change.

Climate change and mining in Canada

Abstract: Climate is an important component of the operating environment for the Canadian mining sector However, in recent years mines across Canada have been affected by significant climatic hazards, several which are regarded to be symptomatic of climate change For the mining sector, climate change is a pressing environmental threat and a significant business risk The extent to which the mining sector is able to mitigate its own impact and adapt to climate change will affect its long-term success and prosperity, and have profound economic consequences for host communities This paper draws upon case studies conducted with mining operations in Canada involving in-depth interviews with mining professionals and analysis of secondary sources to characterize the vulnerability of the Canadian mining industry to climate change Five key findings are discussed: i) mines in the case studies are affected by climate events that are indicative of climate change, with examples of negative impacts over the past decade; ii) most mine infrastructure has been designed assuming that the climate is not changing; iii) most industry stakeholders interviewed view climate change as a minor concern; iv) limited adaption planning for future climate change is underway; v) significant vulnerabilities exist in the post-operational phase of mines This paper argues for greater collaboration among mining companies, regulators, scientists and other industry stakeholders to develop practical adaptation strategies that can be integrated into existing and new mine operations, including in the post-operational phase

Assessment of global bioenergy potentials

Abstract: So far, various studies assessed global biomass potentials and came up with widely varying results. Existing potential estimates range from 0 EJ/a up to more than 1,550 EJ/a which corresponds to about three times the current global primary energy consumption. This paper provides an overview of the available research on bioenergy potentials and reviews the different assessments qualitative way with the objective to interpret previous research in an integrated way. In the context of this paper we understand bioenergy as energy from biomass sources including energy crops, residues, byproducts and wastes from agriculture, forestry, food production and waste management. In this review special attention was paid to the difference between residue and energy potentials, land availability estimates, and the geographical resolution of existing potential estimates. The majority of studies concentrate on energy crop potentials retrieved from surplus agricultural land and only few publications assess global potentials separated by different world regions. It results that land allocated to the exclusive production of energy crops varies from 0 to 7,000 ha, depending on land category and scenario assumptions. Only a small number of available potential assessments consider residue potentials as well as energy crop potentials from degraded land. Future energy crop potentials are assumed to vary in the mean from 200 to 600 EJ/yr. In contrast residue potentials are expected to contribute between 62 and 325 EJ/yr. The highest potentials are assigned to Asia, Africa and South America while Europe, North America and the Pacific region contribute minor parts to the global potential.

Socio-economic impacts of climate change on rural United States

Abstract: Directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, climate change will affect all sectors and regions of the United States. The impacts, however, will not be homogenous across regions, sectors, population groups or time. The literature specifically related to how climate change will affect rural communities, their resilience, and adaptive capacity in the United States (U.S.) is scarce. This article bridges this knowledge gap through an extensive review of the current state of knowledge to make inferences about the rural communities vulnerability to climate change based on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) scenarios. Our analysis shows that rural communities tend to be more vulnerable than their urban counterparts due to factors such as demography, occupations, earnings, literacy, poverty incidence, and dependency on government funds. Climate change impacts on rural communities differs across regions and economic sectors; some will likely benefit while others lose. Rural communities engaged in agricultural and forest related activities in the Northeast might benefit, while those in the Southwest and Southeast could face additional water stress and increased energy cost respectively. Developing adaptation and

Bio-energy supply chains and stakeholders

Abstract: What are the management challenges and opportunities of bio-energy chains for both running their business efficiently and effectively and fostering the relationships with most relevant external stakeholders? This question is approached by systematically reviewing papers at the interface of bio-energy and supply chain or logistics issues. The review conducted as content analysis is based on an analytic framework that conceives bio-energy chains between challenges and benefits of bio-energy production with simultaneous internal supply chain management and external stakeholder management needs. Smartly designed and operated bio-energy projects hold promising potentials of contributing to sustainable development by both mitigating climate change and strengthening adaptation capabilities. Our analysis distils specific strategies and success factors for tapping this potential on two levels: On a supply chain level, individually adapted and designed supply chain systems relying on trustful information exchange, cooperation and relational governance safeguard profitability while holding adverse ecological and social impacts of operation down; they allow, for instance, minimising costs and emissions, implementing new technologies, and coping with environmental uncertainties such as crop failures and volatile prices. On a stakeholder level, governments as key actors for designing the future legal framework of bio-energy are primary targets for lobbying activities of bio-energy representatives. Respective arguments may focus on economic development and job generation. By minimising its adverse impacts on society and eco-systems and by communicating these efforts credibly, bio-energy warrants its superiority over fossil energy systems. Involving NGOs and residents in early stages of bio-energy projects via transparent two-way communication considerably increase societal acceptance.

Climate change/variability implications on hydroelectricity generation in the Zambezi River Basin

Abstract: The study has analysed the effects of various factors on hydroelectric power generation potential to include climate change/variability, water demand, and installation of proposed hydroelectric power schemes in the Zambezi River Basin. An assessment of historical (1970–2000) power potential in relation to climate change/variability at existing hydro electric power schemes(Cahora Bassa, Kariba, Kafue Gorge and Itezhi-Tezhi) in the Zambezi River Basin was conducted. The correlation of hydroelectric power potential with climate change/variability aimed at observing the link and extent of influence of the latter on the former was investigated. In order to predict the future outlook of hydro electric power potential, General Circulation Models (GCM) were used to generate projected precipitation. The monthly simulated precipitation was extracted from the GCM for every sub basin and used to compute future precipitation. Further, future water demand in the sub basins of the Zambezi River Basin were estimated based on the respective population growth rate in each sub basin. Subsequently, water balance model, with projected precipitation and water demand input was used to determine projected run-offs of sub basins of the Zambezi River Basin. .Based on the projected run-offs of sub basins, reservoir storage capacities at existing hydro electric power schemes were estimated. The baseline assessment revealed a strong relationship between hydroelectric power potential and climate change/variability. The study also revealed that the main climate and other risks associated with current and future hydro electric power generation include projected dry years, floods and increasing water demand. The results indicate that the hydroelectric power potential has a tendency towards gradual reduction in its potential in all existing and proposed hydroelectric power schemes owing to climate change and increasing water demand.

Forests and climate change adaptation policies in Cameroon

Abstract: Nowadays, adaptation has become a key focus of the scientific and policy-making communities and is a major area of discussion in the multilateral climate change process. As climate change is projected to hit the poorest the hardest, it is especially important for developing countries to pay particular attention to the management of natural resources and agricultural activities. In most of these countries such as Cameroon, forest can play important role in achieving broader climate change adaptation goals. However, forest generally receives very little attention in national development programme and strategies such as policy dialogues on climate change and poverty reduction strategies. Using a qualitative approach to data collection through content analysis of relevant Cameroon policy documents, the integration of climate change adaptation was explored and the level of attention given to forests for adaptation analysed. Results indicate that, with the exception of the First National Communication to UNFCCC that focused mostly on mitigation and related issues, current policy documents in Cameroon are void of tangible reference to climate change, and hence failing in drawing the relevance of forest in sheltering populations from the many projected impacts of climate change. Policies related to forest rely on a generalized concept of sustainable forest management and do not identify the specific changes that need to be incorporated into management strategies and policies towards achieving adaptation. The strategies and recommendations made in those documents only serve to improve understanding of Cameroon natural resources and add resilience to the natural systems in coping with anthropogenic stresses. The paper draws attention to the need to address the constraints of lack of awareness and poor flow of information on the potentials of forests for climate change adaptation. It highlights the need for integrating forest for adaptation into national development programmes and strategies, and recommends a review of the existing environmental legislations and their implications on poverty reduction strategy and adaptation to climate change.

Mainstreaming climate policy: the role of media coverage in Finland

Abstract: Integration of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures into other policies is considered to be a precondition for effective climate policies. This paper explores the role of mass media coverage as a potential obstacle or enhancing factor in relation to this mainstreaming of climate policies. The paper presents a quantitative content analysis of the national-level press coverage of climate change from 1990 to 2010, focusing on Finland. The empirical results indicate four major phases of Finnish media coverage of climate change: a definition phase before the Kyoto meeting in 1997, a maturation phase after the Kyoto meeting, climate hype in 2006-2008, and a phase of levelling off that started in late 2008. The results suggest that climate issues have widely permeated various fields of newspaper coverage. This broad-based debate may create and sustain a public agenda potentially favourable to attempts to bring climate policies into the mainstream of other policy domains. However, it also may open doors for unexpected initiatives by various activists and lobbyists that employ climate concern as a tool to advance other interests. The role of mass media has received little attention in studies focusing on the mainstreaming of climate policies. This paper highlights the importance of taking media coverage into account as a key factor in the formulation and implementation of environmental policies aimed at broad-based actions.

Carbon storage potential of harvested wood: summary and policy implications

Abstract: Within national greenhouse gas inventories, many countries now use widely-accepted methodologies to track carbon that continues to be stored in wood products and landfills after its removal from the forest. Beyond simply tracking post-harvest wood carbon, expansion of this pool has further been suggested as a potential climate change mitigation strategy. This paper summarizes data on the fate of carbon through the wood processing chain and on greenhouse gas emissions generated by processing, transport, use and disposal of wood. As a result of wood waste and decomposition, the carbon stored long-term in harvested wood products may be a small proportion of that originally stored in the standing trees—across the United States approximately 1% may remain in products in-use and 13% in landfills at 100 years post-harvest. Related processing and transport emissions may in some cases approach the amount of CO2e stored in long-lived solid wood products. Policies that promote wood product carbon storage as a climate mitigation strategy must assess full life-cycle impacts, address accounting uncertainties, and balance multiple public values derived from forests.

Integrated regional modelling and scenario development to evaluate future water demand under global change conditions

Abstract: Within climate change impact research, the consideration of socioeconomic processes remains a challenge. Socioeconomic systems must be equipped to react and adapt to global change. However, any reasonable development or assessment of sustainable adaptation strategies requires a comprehensive consideration of human-environment interactions. This requirement can be met through multi-agent simulation, as demonstrated in the interdisciplinary project GLOWA-Danube (GLObal change of the WAter Cycle; www.glowa-danube.de). GLOWA-Danube has developed an integrated decision support tool for water and land use management in the Upper Danube catchment (parts of Germany and Austria, 77,000 km2). The scientific disciplines invoked in the project have implemented sixteen natural and social science models, which are embedded in the simulation framework DANUBIA. Within DANUBIA, a multi-agent simulation approach is used to represent relevant socioeconomic processes. The structure and results of three of these multi-agent models, WaterSupply, Household and Tourism, are presented in this paper. A main focus of the paper is on the development of global change scenarios (climate and society) and their application to the presented models. The results of different simulation runs demonstrate the potential of multi-agent models to represent feedbacks between different water users and the environment. Moreover, the interactive usage of the framework allows to define and vary scenario assumptions so as to assess the impact of potential interventions. It is shown that integrated modelling and scenario design not only provide valuable information, but also offer a platform for discussing complex human-environment-interactions with stakeholders.

Improving adaptive capacity and resilience in Bhutan

Abstract: Bhutan, a small least developed country in the Himalayan Mountains, faces five current climate change related vulnerabilities: landslides and flooding, deteriorating agricultural production, impoverished forests, worsening health security, and impaired hydroelectricity generation. The country is attempting to adapt to these challenges through two globally sponsored adaptation efforts. One is the “Reducing Climate Change-induced Risks and Vulnerabilities from Glacial Lake Outburst Floods in the Punakha-Wangdue and Chamkhar Valleys” project, or GLOF, a $7.7 million project being funded by the Global Environment Facility, United Nations Development Program, and the government of Bhutan. Another is the GLOF Risk Reduction Project in the Himalayas, or GRRP, a $730,000 program funded by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). These projects offer great potential for improving infrastructural, institutional, and community resilience within Bhutan, but must also overcome a series of pernicious social, political, and economic challenges if they are to succeed.

Capital assets and institutional constraints to implementation of greenhouse gas mitigation options in agriculture

Abstract: Agriculture is one of the major sources of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. It accounts for approximately 15% of the total global anthropogenic emissions of GHGs. Emissions could be twice as much if indirect emissions are also taken into the consideration. However, unlike other high emitting sectors such as transport or energy, agriculture is potentially a significant carbon “sink”. It has high technical potential as a carbon sink and if tapped, can substantially enhance global sequestration efforts. The technical potential, however, may not translate into actual GHG reduction because of the capital assets and institutional constraints faced by the smallholder farmers in the developing countries. In this paper we develop a capital assets based framework of physical, financial, social, human and natural barriers to agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives and through analysis of current initiatives, we set out policy based options to reduce each of these barriers. Fundamentally, barrier removal will entail designing agricultural carbon mitigation initiatives in collaboration with farmer communities, through strengthening local institutions, understanding land tenure and natural resource cultures, ensuring legitimacy and equity in payments and fast tracking training and information. We provide a framework that simultaneously aids the dual objectives of alleviating poverty in the poor farming communities of developing countries and lowering global greenhouse gas emissions.

Spatial and temporal land use and carbon stock changes in Uganda: implications for a future REDD strategy

Abstract: Using a map overlay procedure in a Geographical Information System environment, we quantify and map major land use and land cover (LULC) change patterns in Uganda period 1990–2005 and determine whether the transitions were random or systematic. The analysis reveals that the most dominant systematic land use change processes were deforestation (woodland to subsistence farmland—3.32%); forest degradation (woodland to bushland (4.01%) and grassland (4.08%) and bush/grassland conversion to cropland (5.5%) all resulting in a net reduction in forests (6.1%). Applying an inductive approach based on logistic regression and trend analyses of observed changes we analyzed key drivers of LULC change. Significant predictors of forest land use change included protection status, market access, poverty, slope, soil quality and presence/absence of a stream network. Market access, poverty and population all decreased the log odds of retaining forests. In addition, poverty also increased the likelihood of degradation. An increase in slope decreased the likelihood of deforestation. Using the stock change and gain/loss approaches we estimated the change in forest carbon stocks and emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. Results indicate a negligible increase in forest carbon stocks (3,260 t C yr-1) in the period 1990–2005 when compared to the emissions due to deforestation and forest degradation (2.67 million t C yr-1). In light of the dominant forest land use change patterns, the drivers and change in carbon stocks, we discuss options which could be pursued to implement a future national REDD plus strategy which considers livelihood, biodiversity and climate change mitigation objectives.

Integrated modelling approaches to analysis of climate change impacts on forests and forest management

Abstract: This paper reviews integrated economic and ecological models that address impacts and adaptation to climate change in the forest sector. Early economic model studies considered forests as one out of many possible impacts of climate change, while ecological model studies tended to limit the economic impacts to fixed price-assumptions. More recent studies include broader representations of both systems, but there are still few studies which can be regarded fully integrated. Full integration of ecological and economic models is needed to address forest management under climate change appropriately. The conclusion so far is that there are vast uncertainties about how climate change affects forests. This is partly due to the limited knowledge about the global implications of the social and economical adaptation to the effects of climate change on forests.

Transformative learning and adaptation to climate change in the Canadian Prairie agro-ecosystem

Abstract: Agricultural production in the Canadian Prairies is expected to be negatively affected as climate change projections for the region indicate warmer temperatures, greater incidence and severity of extreme weather events, and reduced water availability and soil moisture. To understand climate change adaption, it is important to explore the learning process that underlies farmer’s adaptation practices in the region. Prairie farmers’ learning was analyzed using Transformative Learning Theory whereby learning is categorized into three types: instrumental, communicative, and transformative. All producers learned instrumentally to some degree, but farmers who placed less emphasis on maximizing economic returns generally showed secondary learning outcomes correlating economic and environmental benefits. Communicative learning was mainly limited to producer-producer dialogue to the exclusion of other organizational and institutional players in the agricultural system. Critical reflection was explored as an important precursor to transformative learning. Strong evidence of transformative learning was rare (observed in 11% of farmers), but indicators of transformative learning were diverse and was observed in 43% of farmers. Transformative learning is believed to be important for flexible decision-making and autonomous thinking, making it advantageous for responding to changing environmental conditions. The analysis shows that a large number of information sources, and communication of information in an experiential and observable way, is conducive to transformative learning. Adaptation to environmental uncertainty, resulting from changing climatic conditions, may be most effectively dealt with when individual farmers undergo transformative learning whereby underlying assumptions that govern actions, values, and claims to knowledge are questioned.

CO2 emission and economic growth of Iran

Abstract: This research investigates the relationship between CO2 emission and economic growth of Iran over 14 years from 1994 to 2007 using a national panel data set. The statistical and emission intensity methodologies are used for analyzing the data series. The study finds evidence supporting parameters which conclude the stability of significant correlation between CO2 emission and economic development over time during the years under investigation in Iran. This relationship is investigated and discussed for the energy sectors of the country as well. The results confirm that in all sectors except of agricultural, there is a positive strong correlation between CO2 emission and economic growth throughout the study period. In most sectors, CO2 emission intensity (the emission per unit of GDP) doesn’t show increasing trends while the absolute emission is rapidly increasing by the economic growth.

Soil frost control: agricultural adaptation to climate variability in a cold region of Japan

Abstract: In the northernmost region of Japan (Hokkaido Island), earlier onsets of thick snowcover in recent years (post 1980) have reduced the penetration depth of soil frost, resulting in over-winter survival of unharvested small potato (Solanum tuberosum) tubers that emerge as weeds in the spring in rotation crop fields. To prevent the occurrence of potato weeds, a method was developed to manipulate soil-frost depths by artificially controlling snowcover thickness, guided by a simple numerical model that simulates soil freezing-thawing processes using daily mean air temperature and snowcover thinckness as input variables. The method involves removal of snowcover to expose the soil surface in the beginning of winter until the soil freezes to a sufficient depth. After that time, snow is deposited back or allowed to accumulate naturally to prevent further penetration of frost, which may cause undesirable delay in the seeding of spring crops. Field trials indicated that the model predicted frost depths within several centimeters of observed values, when measured temperature and snowcover thickness were used as model input. Based on the field and laboratory data, a soil temperature of −3°C is necessary for complete elimination of potato tubers. To achieve this temperature in potato-burial zones without causing excessive freezing, an optimal frost depth is 0.3 to 0.4 m. The method is being adopted by progressive potato producers in the region, who use tractor-mounted snow ploughs to manipulate snowcover over a large scale. This is an emerging new technology for agricultural adaptation to climate variability.

Impact of climate change at species level: a case study of teak in India

Abstract: In this study, we model the long-term effect of climate change on commercially important teak (Tectona grandis) and its productivity in India. This modelling assessment is based on climate projections of the regional climate model of the Hadley Center (HadRM3) and the dynamic vegetation model, IBIS. According to the model projections, 30% of teak grids in India are vulnerable to climate change under both A2 and B2 SRES scenarios because the future climate may not be optimal for teak at these grids. However, the net primary productivity and biomass are expected to increase because of elevated levels of CO2. Given these directions of likely impacts, it is crucial to further investigate the climate change impacts on teak and incorporate such findings into long-term teak plantation programs. This study also demonstrates the feasibility and limitations of assessing the impact of projected climate change at the species level in the tropics.

Climate change and human health—what influences the adoption of adaptation programming in the United States public health system?

Abstract: With growing evidence on how climate change impacts human health, public health agencies should develop adaptation programs focused on the impacts predicted to affect their jurisdictions. However, recent research indicates that public health agencies in the United States have done little to prepare the public for predicted climate change impacts, largely due in response to a lack of resources and priority. This study surveyed Environmental Health (EH) Directors across the United States to determine the extent to which individual level attitudes and beliefs influence the adoption of climate change adaptation programming in a department. The results indicate that an EH Director’s perception of the health risk posed by climate change explained 27% of the variance in the number of climate change impacts being addressed. Furthermore, the study found that environmental attitude and political views made strong, unique contributions in explaining the variance in risk perception. The results provide evidence that individual-level attitudes and beliefs, as well as organizational-level barriers influence the adoption of climate change adaptation programs in public health agencies. As a result, increasing EH Directors’ perception of risk by highlighting the likelihood and severity of localized impacts may increase the adoption of adaptation programming despite existing organizational barriers (e.g., lack of resources). Given the fact that risk perception has been shown to influence behavior across cultures, these findings are also useful for understanding the influence of individual decision makers on public health programming around the world.

Development and demonstration of fuel cell vehicles and supporting infrastructure in China

Abstract: The demand for urban transportation in China, including cars, motorbikes, buses, and trains, is growing substantially. China’s transportation fleet is projected to expand from 16 to 94 million vehicles between 2000 and 2020, with liquid and electricity transport fuel demand growing from about 5 Quadrillion British Thermal Units (Quads) to over 20 Quads in 2035. In response to energy security, economic growth and environmental protection needs, Chinese government agencies, academia and the private sector have organized their programs and investments to advance development and demonstration of sustainable alternative transportation systems. This analysis surveys historic development of fuel cell vehicle (FCV) including fuel cell buses (FCB) technology in China, summarizes recent efforts to scale-up FCV development and associated infrastructure in major Chinese cities, and briefly addresses future directions in Chinese fuel cell and hydrogen energy technology development. Since the late 1990’s, Chinese universities, government institutions and the private sector have implemented research, development, demonstration and deployment programs for electric (EV), fuel cell (FCV), and hybrid electric vehicles (HEV). These efforts have advanced the feasibility of FCVs to be a part of sustainable urban transportation system, including technical performance, infrastructure, and customer acceptance. Three generations of FCVs, START I, START II and START III have been developed, demonstrated and deployed. Similarly, several generations of FCBs have been developed and demonstrated. Collectively, these efforts have demonstrated and deployed over 1,000 FCBs and FCVs in several Chinese cities. Large-scale, intensive-use FCV and FCB demonstration trials, including those during the 2008 Beijing Olympics and the 2010 Shanghai World Exposition (EXPO), have been successfully built and operated. Infrastructure, such as hydrogen production facilities, fuelling stations, and maintenance stations have been constructed and operated to support the fleets of FCBs and FCVs. Experiences learned from these FCV research, development, and demonstration activities are the foundation for scaling up infrastructure and fleet trials in a growing number of cities in eastern and western China. An aggressive research and development vision and 2020 technology performance targets provide a foundation for the next generation of EVs, FCVs and HEVs, and, options for China’s efforts to develop a portfolio of sustainable transportation systems.

Greenhouse gas emissions from rice based cropping systems: Economic and technologic challenges and opportunities

Abstract: Recent market slump in rice, less rainfall during monsoon, high temperature and scarcity of water during dry season leads to lower grain yield and less profit from rice cultivation in India. Farmers’ grow upland crops like chickpea (Cicer arietinum), greengram (Vigna radiate), mustard (Brassica nigra), corn (Zea maize), pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan), potato (Solanum tuberosum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus) etc. along with rice (Oryza sativa) during the dry season. However, knowledge of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission from these rice based cropping systems is very limited. In the present study four rice based cropping systems was studied along with rice-rice rotation system as control in respect of GHG emission, yield potential and economic feasibility. Conventional plantation and fertilizer application methodology was followed for each crop. Methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) flux from field plots were studied with conventional closed chamber method using gas chromatograph. CH4 flux was recorded highest from rice-rice rotation plots (304.25 kg ha−1). N2O flux was recorded 1.02 kg ha−1 from rice-rice rotation system during wet season. However, during wet season, higher N2O flux (1.93 kg ha−1) was recorded from rice-potato-sesame rotation plots. Annual N2O flux was also recorded significantly low (3.42 kg ha−1) from rice-rice rotation plots and high (6.19 kg ha−1) from rice-chickpea-greengram rotation plots. Significantly lower annual grain yield was recorded from rice-rice rotation plots (9.25 Mg ha−1) whereas it was 18.84 Mg rice eq ha−1 from rice-potato-sesame rotation system. The global warming potential (GWP) of rice-rice rotation system was recorded significantly high (8.62 Mg CO2 ha−1) compare to plots with different rice based cropping systems. Computing all C-emission from cradle-to-grave, highest total C-cost was recorded from the rice-rice rotation system ($62.00 ha−1). We have made an attempt to calculate the C-credit of different rice based cropping systems by considering the difference of C-cost with control. The study suggests that the rice-potato-sesame is most sustainable among different cropping system studied in terms of economic profit ($1248.21 ha−1) and C-credit ($38.60 ha−1). The result of the study may be limited to the study region; however, the study has potential use in respect to the development of agriculture practice for adaptation to climate change.

Sewing climate-resilient seeds: implementing climate change adaptation best practices in rural Cambodia

Abstract: Multilateral support through programs like the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) targets countries widely considered to be the most vulnerable to climate change. Cambodia is one of the six Asian LDCF recipients and with UNDP support is implementing the first adaptation project to arise from its National Adaptation Program of Action. Drawing on primary research conducted in August 2010 through interviews with key stakeholders, this article investigates the project for the likely benefits and challenges it will face in promoting institutional, infrastructural, and community resilience to climate change impacts. We find that the country’s ongoing decentralization reforms offer an effective opportunity to mainstream climate change planning into sub-national government operations, but that competing priorities for immediate investment in education, roads, and healthcare may prevent government officers from sustaining a focus on preventative adaptation measures. We conclude that through careful planning, water resources infrastructure and agricultural practices can be designed to withstand climate variability and avoid the need to replace or rehabilitate systems whose specifications were prematurely determined by international donors.

Sustainable energy investments: contributions of the Global Environment Facility

Abstract: Addressing energy, economic and environment security is a pressing challenge for nations worldwide. Global energy demand is projected to increase by 45% during the next 20 years, with the fastest growth in developing and transition countries. Over the past two decades, the Global Environment Facility (GEF) has invested in a portfolio of sustainable energy projects with an emphasis on energy efficiency, renewable energy, and urban transport. These projects address many different national priorities including infrastructure, technologies, policies, best practices, institutions, and capacity building. Since 1991, more than US$2,735 billion has been invested in energy sector projects with an additional US$17.118 billion in co-financing from governments and the private sector. US$1,186 billion, together with US$7,092 billion in co-finance, has been invested in energy efficiency projects that deploy new technologies, develop institutional and human capacity, disseminate best practices, and build public awareness and understanding. GEF renewable energy investments of US$1,298 billion, with co-financing of US$7,555 billion, have advanced demonstration and deployment of solar thermal heating, solar thermal power, photovoltaics, wind power, geothermal energy, small hydropower, biomass, and combined technologies and best practices across 5 continents. The GEF has invested US$251 million (with US$2,471 billion in co-finance) in urban transport projects that address transport strategies, infrastructure, and mobility technology solutions. These energy efficiency, renewable energy and urban transport projects contributed to the direct reduction of about 1.7 billion tons of greenhouse gas emissions. Other tangible environmental benefits also flowed from these GEF investments. Case studies of representative projects are presented to illustrate lessons learned from the energy efficiency, renewable, energy, and urban transport investments. Experiences from GEF investments can inform development and implementation of future sustainable energy investments.