Showing papers in "Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology in 1985"
TL;DR: Positive priming was demonstrated with categorically related objects, which suggests that ignored objects achieve categorical levels of representation, and that the inhibition may be at this level.
Abstract: A priming paradigm was employed to investigate the processing of an ignored object during selection of an attended object. Two issues were investigated: the level of internal representation achieved for the ignored object, and the subsequent fate of this representation. In Experiment 1 a prime display containing two superimposed objects was briefly presented. One second later a probe display was presented containing an object to be named. If the ignored object in the prime display was the same as the subsequent probe, naming latencies were impaired. This effect is termed negative priming. It suggests that internal representations of the ignored object may become associated with inhibition during selection. Thus, selection of a subsequent probe object requiring these inhibited representations is delayed. Experiment 2 replicated the negative priming effect with a shorter inter-stimulus interval. Experiment 3 examined the priming effects of both the ignored and the selected objects. The effect of both identi...
1,453 citations
TL;DR: The priming effects of ignored information have been studied in Stroop displays and with spatially superimposed drawings and it is confirmed that naming of probes related to ignored primes is delayed in these experiments (“negative priming”).
Abstract: The priming effects of ignored information have been studied in Stroop displays (Neill, 1977) and with spatially superimposed drawings (Tipper, in this issue); naming of probes related to ignored primes is delayed in these experiments (“negative priming”). This negative priming effect is confirmed in a list reading task in Experiment 1, which used partially superimposed letters, and Experiment 2, which used spatially separated letters. Furthermore, Lowe (1979) using Stroop colour words observed that changing the nature of the probe such that it did not require selection from a competing word reversed the priming effects of the ignored word from inhibition to facilitation. Experiment 3 confirmed this observation when subjects selected a red letter from a green letter. Two models are suggested to account for this result. In the first, negative priming is a product of the ignored prime and subsequent probe being encoded both as a stimulus to be ignored and one to be named (Allport, Tipper and Chmiel, in pres...
548 citations
411 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe some aspects of reading and writing in a highly literate subject who has unusual difficulty in reading and spelling non-words, and no cerebral trauma is indicated.
Abstract: This paper describes some aspects of reading and writing in a highly literate subject who has unusual difficulty in reading and spelling non-words. No cerebral trauma is indicated, and she performs...
290 citations
TL;DR: Subjects seem able to use vision rapidly to modify aiming movements but may do so only when the visual information is predictably available and/or yields an error large enough to detect early enough to correct.
Abstract: Three experiments were conducted to determine how variables other than movement time influence the speed of visual feedback utilization in a target-pointing task. In Experiment 1, subjects moved a stylus to a target 20 cm away with movement times of approximately 225 msec. Visual feedback was manipulated by leaving the room lights on over the whole course of the movement or extinguishing the lights upon movement initiation, while prior knowledge about feedback availability was manipulated by blocking or randomizing feedback. Subjects exhibited less radial error in the lights-on/blocked condition than in the other three conditions. In Experiment 2, when subjects were forced to use vision by a laterally displacing prism, it was found that they benefited from the presence of visual feedback regardless of feedback uncertainty even when moving very rapidly (e.g. less than 190 msec). In Experiment 3, subjects pointed with and without a prism over a wide variety of movement times. Subjects benefited from vision ...
175 citations
TL;DR: The Bartlett lecture as mentioned in this paper was one of the last lectures of a short course of introductory lectures he gave in 1970, and the very last words of his last lecture were, "So you see it is all very difficult".
Abstract: I feel deeply honoured by your invitation to give the Bartlett lecture, and am especially glad to do so in Holland, the home of so many distinguished psychologists of sensation and perception. And there is a third reason why it has given me much pleasure, for Sir Frederick Bartlett was one of those who had an important influence on the direction of my career some 40 years ago. I had to decide whether to spend my last year at Cambridge reading psychology or physiology, so I attended a short course of introductory lectures he gave in July. About half a dozen of us sat on upright wooden chairs circled around him as he sat in an armchair, smiling benignly. The first thing he did was to tell us to close our notebooks, for he was not going to say anything that would help us to pass any exams. And I believe the very last words of his last lecture were, “So you see it is all very difficult”. I was very glad he said that, for I had in fact found it all very heavy going: my brain seemed always to be lost i...
164 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that both unskilled and skilled subjects showed marked interdependence of movements such that performance of one hand was a function of movements in the other hand.
Abstract: Unskilled and skilled subjects were asked to perform a variety of bimanual tapping tasks. Three major effects were seen. First, right-handers performed dual tasks better when the preferred hand took the “figure” and when the nonpreferred hand took the “ground” of the dual movement. This effect was not seen in left-handers. Second, subjects performed a simple slow/fast dual task better when they commenced the task with the fast rather than with the slow hand. This effect was seen in right- and lefthanders. Third, both unskilled and skilled subjects showed marked interdependence of movements such that performance of one hand was a function of movements in the other hand. The results are in agreement with a model that postulates the presence of a superordinate control mechanism that initiates action in subordinate control mechanisms, which in turn set the movement trajectories in the two hands. The results also show that attention is an important factor in the interaction between these two levels of...
133 citations
TL;DR: Bel beliefs appear to affect the process of reasoning rather than the interpretation of premises, and conclusions that were false by definition had a bigger effect on deductions than those that werefalse as a matter of fact.
Abstract: Two experiments examined the effects of subjects' beliefs on syllogistic inference. The first experiment showed that beliefs biased the spontaneous conclusions that subjects drew for themselves. These effects were more marked for indeterminate premises (which yield no non-trivial valid conclusions) than for determinate premises (which yield valid conclusions). There was also an effect of the nature of the beliefs: conclusions that were false by definition had a bigger effect on deductions than those that were false as a matter of fact. The second experiment replicated the finding for determinate syllogisms, using problems in moods in which the status of the valid conclusion could not be altered by conversion of the premises. Beliefs accordingly appear to affect the process of reasoning rather than the interpretation of premises.
131 citations
TL;DR: The authors showed that the processing of target words congruous with the sentence context should be facilitated more in lexical decision than in naming, and confirmed this prediction for word targets following word contexts.
Abstract: Stanovich and West (1983; West and Stanovich, 1982) demonstrated that lexical decisions to target words preceded by incongruous sentence contexts are inhibited more by these contexts than are naming responses to the same target words. They argued that this difference between the two tasks was due to post-lexical processing at the message level that is effective only in the lexical-decision task. The operations of the mechanism thought to underlie this post-lexical effect also predict that, under certain circumstances, the processing of target words congruous with the sentence context should be facilitated more in lexical decision than in naming. The present naming study together with an earlier lexical-decision study tested and confirmed this prediction for word targets following word contexts. The stimulus-onset asynchrony of context word and target word was also varied. This manipulation clearly affected the magnitude of facilitation, indicating that context-induced attentional processing can facilitate...
129 citations
TL;DR: The results suggest that locale or place learning and cue or guidance learning, in O'Keefe and Nadel's (1978) terminology, interact with one another in much the same way as does learning about any pair of stimuli in a Pavlovian conditioning experiment.
Abstract: Rats were trained on an elevated maze where the rewarded alternative was defined either in terms of intra-maze cues (rubber or sandpaper flooring on rewarded and unrewarded arms, regardless of thei
123 citations
TL;DR: A dual-task paradigm is used to investigate whether the auditory input logogen is distinct from the articulatory output logogen and it is shown that the task of detecting an unspecified name in an auditory input stream can be combined with reading aloud visually presented words with relatively little single- to dual- task decrement.
Abstract: A dual-task paradigm is used to investigate whether the auditory input logogen is distinct from the articulatory output logogen. In the first two experiments it is shown that the task of detecting ...
Abstract: In three experiments we investigated the effect on the performance of thirsty rats of varying the instrumental contingency between lever pressing and the delivery of a saccharin reinforcer. In Expe...
TL;DR: The authors investigated the hypothesis that the formation of a given percept of an ambiguous figure results from focusing attention on a focal area that contains features significant for this percept but not for the alternative one.
Abstract: The present study was designed to investigate the hypothesis that the formation of a given percept of an ambiguous figure results from focusing attention on a focal area that contains features significant for this percept but not for the alternative one Two such focal areas were designated for the two competing interpretations of the bird/plane and duck/rabbit ambiguous figures Detecting a letter following the figure was faster when the letter appeared in the focal area of the perceived interpretation than in the focal area of the alternative one Furthermore, directing attention to a given focal area shortly before the presentation of the figure increased the likelihood of forming the corresponding interpretation rather than the alternative one Results suggest that maintaining different interpretations of the same ambiguous figure is mediated by focusing attention on different parts of the figure
TL;DR: The production of this simple set of movements may be partly described by a cascade-type process of parallel analysis of spatial information for eye and hand control, but is also, later in the movement, assisted by cross-system interaction.
Abstract: Orienting to a target by looking and pointing is examined for parallels between the control of the two systems and interactions due to movement of the eyes and limb to the same target. Parallels appear early in orienting and may be due to common processing of spatial information for the ocular and manual systems. The eyes and limb both have shorter response latency to central visual and peripheral auditory targets. Each movement also has shorter latency and duration when the target presentation is short enough (200 msec) that no analysis of feedback of the target position is possible during the movement. Interactions appear at many stages of information processing for movement. Latency of ocular movement is much longer when the subject also points, and the eye and limb movement latencies are highly correlated for orienting to auditory targets. Final position of eyes and limb are significantly correlated only when target duration is short (200 msec). This illustrates that sensory information obtained befor...
TL;DR: It was concluded that a complex, flexible relationship exists between spatial functioning and its expression via motor responses in rats complements rather than replaces the use of a spatial representation of the environment.
Abstract: Two experiments were conducted to determine whether consistent algorithmic response patterning on 8- and 10-arm versions of the radial maze is independent of spatial encoding. On the 8-arm version well-trained hooded rats were tested in darkness, after maze rotation that rendered room cues ambiguous with respect to arm positions, or with room cues unsystematically relocated. Ambiguous maze rotation was also used with well-trained subjects on the 10-arm version. If algorithmic patterning is a learned, non-spatial strategy, animals using it consistently ought not to have been affected by changes in the spatial layout of the test environment, and the type of pattern used by each subject would have remained constant. On the 8-arm radial maze, responses were most often made to arms 2 or 3 from that just visited. In many animals patterns were interchangeable, switching occurring between preferred angles of turn from day to day. Performance fell when animals were tested in darkness and upon ambiguous maze rotati...
TL;DR: The relative gain from two-handed reading was negatively correlated with absolute size of speed difference between the hands in one- handed reading, which suggests that both hands participate in the collection of text information.
Abstract: Evidence regarding the respective functions of the hands in braille reading was sought by considering how reading speed is affected by hand usage and degree of contexual constraint. Twenty-four blind readers read aloud prose, statistical approximations and scrambled words with either hand alone or with the two hands. No overall superiority of one hand was observed in one-handed reading, but there were large and reliable individual differences in pattern of hand superiority, which were not related to general performance level. All subjects read faster with the two hands than with the faster hand alone. The relative gain from two-handed reading was negatively correlated with absolute size of speed difference between the hands in one-handed reading, which suggests that both hands participate in the collection of text information. On the other hand, in each reading condition, reading speed increased with degree of contextual constraint, from scrambled words to prose. The fact that the effect is comparable to ...
TL;DR: Video recordings of the hands of 24 blind adults reading aloud prose, statistical approximations and scrambled words with either hand alone and with two hands were analysed, finding hand dissociation was correlated positively with individual reading speed in both two-handed and one-handed reading.
Abstract: Video recordings of the hands of 24 blind adults reading aloud prose, statistical approximations and scrambled words with either hand alone and with two hands were analysed. Hand activity involved ...
TL;DR: A tentative model is put forward in which a single processing stage, which starts anew after each saccade, generates a representation with word identities as its primitives and sentence-centred coordinates.
Abstract: Marr and Nishihara (1978) have made certain recommendations about how representations postulated in a theory of visual information processing should be specified. Using this scheme the paper discusses representations which might be postulated in a model of visual word recognition. A representation is specified in terms of a set of primitives (e.g., word identities or visual features) in combination with a coordinate system. The coordinate systems considered are retinal, spatial (e.g., position on page) word-centred (position in word) and sentence-centred (position in sentence). Various combinations of primitives and coordinate systems are considered along with how to decide which combinations are actually generated in the process of fluent reading. A tentative model is put forward in which a single processing stage, which starts anew after each saccade, generates a representation with word identities as its primitives and sentence-centred coordinates. Evidence to support such a model which has no intermed...
TL;DR: This paper showed that subjects can make up sentences faster from related noun pairs than from unrelated pairs, and that the latencies were faster rather than slower with a preload compared to an initial prediction.
Abstract: Previous research has shown that subjects can make up sentences faster from related noun pairs than from unrelated pairs. Two experiments tested the proposal that for the related pairs a subject simply has to access stored information but must make up an appropriate relation for unrelated pairs. In both studies the subjects were asked on some trials to remember a digit preload while they made up their sentences. Contrary to an initial prediction, the latencies were faster rather than slower with a preload. Furthermore, a surprise recall test at the end of Experiment 2 showed that there was no difference in the recall of related and unrelated pairs. The results were interpreted as evidence that semantic work was necessary for both types of noun pairs, and that the subjects did less semantic work with a digit preload. This interpretation was further supported by the finding that with the preload the subjects produced a narrower range of semantic relations between the noun pairs.
TL;DR: It was argued that blind and sighted children use extent and direction cues from the positioning movement in locating targets, and that these are not automatic effects but result from children's assessment of the informational conditions.
Abstract: Experiment 1 tested blind children's recall of locations with repeated and changed recall movements under normal and out-of-line body-to-target orientation. Changed movements produced target unders...
TL;DR: The authors showed that articulating "blah" repeatedly aloud or silently interfered with the speed and accuracy of judging whether pairs of words rhymed. But the results failed to support the theory that there are different methods of accessing phonology for words or non-words.
Abstract: Two experiments showed that articulating “blah” repeatedly aloud or silently interfered with the speed and accuracy of judging whether pairs of words rhymed. Articulation from another voice affected only accuracy, and foot tapping had no effect. This suggests that it is mainly the articulatory component of articulatory suppression that interferes with this task and that rhyme judgments of words depend on an articulatory code or an acoustic code accessed via articulation. A third experiment confirmed these effects on speed of judgment, but there were no significant effects on errors in this experiment. Non-verbal use of the articulatory musculature in chewing also slowed performance. Similar results were obtained for word and non-word rhyme judgments, though the latter effects were somewhat weaker. It is argued that the results fail to support the theory that there are different methods of accessing phonology for words or non-words and indicate that access to phonology was via articulation, rather...
TL;DR: Taft's grapheme-grapheme account, which assumes that graphemes that map onto a common phoneme develop the ability to activate each other without reference to phonological mediation, is tested in two experiments which show that the presentation of a pseudohomophone facilitates the response to a subsequently presented word.
Abstract: Responses to items such as brane are slower and/or more error prone than responses to items such as slint in lexical decision (is this string spelt like a real word?). The received view is that thi...
TL;DR: Differences were found between vector-pattern types on this task that point to a two-component process for pattern recognition under transformation.
Abstract: The extent to which combined local position and orientation information contributes to the recognition of patterns under transformation was investigated. Vector patterns, which consist of arrays of line segments composed according to specific rules, were presented in pairs. Discrimination performance was measured both as a function of the degree of local perturbation in one member of an otherwise identical pair, and in terms of a global rotation of one pattern with respect to the other. Differences were found between vector-pattern types on this task that point to a two-component process for pattern recognition under transformation. One component involves the comparison of local orientation/position information in the original pattern with that in its transform. The second component is global and is related to the degree to which the vector pattern is invariant under certain whole-field (1-parameter) transformations. T. Caelli is now at the Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonto...
TL;DR: It is concluded that cueing enhances recognition accuracy in single-item displays because such an effect can only be shown if optimal experimental conditions are used.
Abstract: With single-item visual displays, facilitating effects of foreknowledge of position have been shown in detection tasks with latency and with accuracy as the dependent variables, as well as in recognition tasks with latency as the dependent variable. There is no evidence, however, of positive selective attention effects on recognition accuracy with single-item displays. One failure to find such an effect was reported by Grindley and Townsend (1968). It is argued that in the study of Grindley and Townsend sub-optimal conditions were used and that a more elaborate replication of their study is in order. In the experiment reported here, an exposure duration resulting in 75% correct recognitions of target letters was determined per subject. This exposure time was used in the subsequent experimental sessions. In the experimental trials, single letters were presented on one out of five positions on an imaginary circle around a fixation point. The position of the impending target item was either cued or not cued ...
TL;DR: A short interval between the Presentation of CS1 at T1 and the presentation of CS2 at T2 was found to have facilitated the extinction of the aversion to CS2 compared either to a long interval between these presentations or to the presentationof CS2 in the absence of a prior CS1 presentation.
Abstract: A toxiphobia conditioning paradigm was used to examine the relation between the intertrial interval (ITI) and the extinction of an aversion. The design employed was based upon that developed by Davis (1970) to study the relation between the ITI and the habituation of a response. After conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) was presented on two occasions at times T1 and T2, and this interval (the ITI) was varied across groups. However, the interval from the CS exposure at T2 to the extinction test was common for all groups. On the test, ITIs of 6 to 24 hr were found to have promoted more extinction than ITIs of 0.5 hr with odour (Experiments 1a and b) and flavour (Experiment 1c) CSs. Further, this facilitation of extinction by the long ITIs compared to the short ones was not due to differences in the intervals between the initial CS exposure at T1 and the test (Experiment 2). The final experiment examined the relation between the ITI and extinction when different CSs were presented at T1 and T2. A sho...
TL;DR: It is proposed that one influence on the rate of autoshaped keypecking during a CS is the accuracy with which the immediate consequences of that CS are predicted.
Abstract: Three experiments, each using a single group of pigeons, are reported. In Experiment 1 subjects were initially trained with two stimuli, one of which was always followed by food, the other being reinforced according to a 50% partial reinforcement schedule. Subsequently a serial procedure was adopted in which an additional stimulus, C, was consistently followed by the partially reinforced CS. A second additional stimulus, A, was followed on half of its occurrences by the continuously reinforced CS, its remaining presentations being followed by nothing. The rate of autoshaped keypecking was substantially greater during A than during C. In the remaining experiments subjects received first-order conditioning with a single stimulus that was either partially (Experiment 2) or continuously (Experiment 3) reinforced. The stimuli A and C were then again introduced for serial autoshaping. Stimulus A was occasionally paired with the CS and occasionally followed by nothing, whereas stimulus C was always followed by t...
TL;DR: Investigation of a neurological patient who presents with a relatively pure disorder of reading was carried out, his performance on a number of oral reading tasks was very similar to that of the surface dyslexic patient reported by Shallice, Warrington and McCarthy (1983).
Abstract: Investigation of a neurological patient (PT) who presents with a relatively pure disorder of reading was carried out. His performance on a number of oral reading tasks was very similar to that of the surface dyslexic patient (HTR) reported by Shallice, Warrington and McCarthy (1983). Both patients showed an effect of “degree” of regularity in terms of accuracy of reading response. PT did not, however, show an effect of “typicality of divergence”, which was considered by Shallice and his colleagues to be responsible for the former effect. The size of orthographic–phonological unit operational in PT's oral reading was experimentally determined. PT appeared to rely on grapheme–phoneme correspondences that were assigned in a probabilistic rather than an “all-or-none” manner. No evidence for the existence of the sub-syllable as an independent unit was found. In contrast, this unit apparently mediated the performance of skilled adult readers. Implications of these results for models of the phonological...
TL;DR: In this article, a computer model embodying two processes, either of which could initiate responding in an interval, was used to simulate the postreinforcement pause under fixed-interval schedules.
Abstract: Some quantitative properties of the postreinforcement pause under fixed-interval schedules were simulated by a computer model embodying two processes, either of which could initiate responding in an interval The first was a scalar timing system similar to that hypothesized to underlie behaviour on other tasks The second was a process that initiated responding without regard to elapsed time in the interval The model produced simulated pauses with a mean that varied as a power function of the interval value, and a standard deviation that appeared to grow as a linear function of the mean Both these features were found in real data The model also predicted several other features of pausing and responding under fixed-interval schedules and was also consistent with the results produced under some temporal differentiation contingencies The model thus illustrated that behaviour that conformed to the power law could nevertheless be reconciled with scalar timing theory, if an additional non-timing process cou
TL;DR: Humphreys and Riddoch as mentioned in this paper reported data contrasting the performance of five brain-damaged patients, H JA, DB, JL, CR and GS, when asked to match and name photographs of objects depicted in different views.
Abstract: In a recent paper (Humphreys and Riddoch, 1984), we reported data contrasting the performance of five brain-damaged patients, H JA, DB, JL, CR and GS, when asked to match and name photographs of objects depicted in different views. We argued that one patient, HJA, was dependent on the pick-up of local feature information for object constancy and identification, whilst the other patients DB, JL, CR and GS, were dependent on the use of global characteristics of objects. The argument was based on differences between the patients and a group of control subjects on matching foreshortened and minimal-feature photographs of objects, and on the effects of changes in the visual properties of objects on the patients’ naming accuracy. Statistical analyses in part involved a comparison of each patient’s performance under the different conditions using the x2 statistic; they also involved an assessment of the size of the difference between performance on the two views for one patient, HJA, relative to that found with a group of eight control subjects, using a 2 test. Unfortunately, there are two sources of error in the results we reported. First, the correct figure for the Z score (p. 395) should be 3.04, p
TL;DR: A right visual field advantage was observed both for numbers written ideographically (Arabic numerals) and alphabetically and the laterality effect was stronger for the alphabetic than for the ideographic script, but the interaction with visual field failed to reach statistical significance.
Abstract: Subjects made a number-non-number classification for single numbers or non-numbers presented either in the left or right visual field. A right visual field advantage was observed both for numbers written ideographically (Arabic numerals) and alphabetically. The laterality effect was stronger for the alphabetic than for the ideographic script, but the interaction with visual field failed to reach statistical significance. The results are discussed in the framework of other studies contrasting the processing of logographic and phonographic scripts as a function of the visual field.