Showing papers in "Research on Aging in 2010"
TL;DR: This article synthesizes the recent state of social research on older lesbian, gay male, and bisexual adults in order to summarize existing knowledge about these groups, to guide future research on aging, and to identify the substantive issues affecting their lives.
Abstract: In a review of 58 articles published between 1984 and 2008, this article synthesizes the recent state of social research on older lesbian, gay male, and bisexual adults in order to summarize existing knowledge about these groups, to guide future research on aging, and to identify the substantive issues affecting their lives Based on a life-course perspective, the primary research domains identified include the interplay of lives and historical times and linked and interdependent lives After reviewing the literature in each of these areas, the article presents an examination of the strengths and limitations of the body of knowledge and an outline of a blueprint for future research
284 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of filial piety on the appraisal of caregiving burden by Chinese-Canadian family caregivers using a quantitative telephone survey and a hypothesized model denoting both the direct and indirect effects of fathoming on caregiving burdens was tested using structural equation modeling.
Abstract: This study examined the effects of filial piety on the appraisal of caregiving burden by Chinese-Canadian family caregivers. A quantitative telephone survey was used as the research design for this study. A total of 339 randomly selected Canadian-Chinese family caregivers of elderly were interviewed by telephone. A hypothesized model denoting both the direct and indirect effects of filial piety on caregiving burden was tested using structural equation modeling. While stressors and appraisal factors reported direct predicting effects on caregiving burden, filial piety indirectly affected caregiving burden by altering appraisals of the caregiver role. Filial piety served as a protective function to reduce the negative effects of stressors and to enhance the positive effect of appraisal factors on caregiving burden.
224 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a comprehensive, multifaceted conceptual model for reminiscence and life review is presented, focusing on triggers, modes, contexts, moderators, functions, and outcomes.
Abstract: Nearly 50 years after Butler’s seminal 1963 contribution, the field of reminiscence and life review is entering a more mature stage. Isolated examples of increasingly sophisticated studies have recently emerged that can serve as a sound, cumulative data base. However, the field lacks an overarching conceptual model describing emerging trends, neglected domains, and key linkages among component parts. In the present article, the authors selectively, yet critically, review prior limitations and promising developments and then describe a comprehensive, multifaceted conceptual model that can guide future research and practice. The authors initially situate their model within a particular theoretical orientation (i.e., life-span psychology). They then describe a heuristic model that identifies and discusses triggers, modes, contexts, moderators, functions, and outcomes. Finally, the authors illustrate how these interactive factors influence both theoretical and applied areas.
193 citations
TL;DR: The model suggests that family and job demands and resources predict family- to-work and work-to-family conflict, respectively, in addition to socioeconomic status and the availability of a pension plan and health insurance.
Abstract: This study presents an integrative model of early retirement using data from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. The model extends prior work by incorporating work-family conflict to capture the interaction between the work and family domains and by assuming proximal and distal predictors of early retirement. More precisely, the model suggests that family and job demands and resources predict family-to-work and work-to-family conflict, respectively. All of these factors are presumed to have only indirect effects on retirement timing via the intervening effect of quality of life measures, that is, marital satisfaction, job satisfaction and health. The authors assume that these three factors constitute predictors of early retirement in addition to socioeconomic status and the availability of a pension plan and health insurance. The model was tested with structural equation modeling techniques, and the results were supportive. Therefore, the proposed model offers a general framework for the integration of previous research findings.
114 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that women's increase in anxiety about retirement and planning is not solely due to the male's domain, but also due to women's unwillingness to plan for their own.
Abstract: Previous literature has situated retirement and retirement planning within the male’s domain by positioning women as unconcerned and therefore ill prepared for retirement. However, women’s increasi...
103 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined gender differences in post-retirement employment, using the first eight waves of Health and Retirement Study data and found that divorced and separated women have a greater likelihood of labor force reentry than married women and that this difference increases with time out of the labor force, suggesting push factors that derive from economic vulnerability.
Abstract: This study examines gender differences in postretirement employment, using the first eight waves of Health and Retirement Study data. Gender is shown to be an important factor in understanding transitions into postretirement employment. Forty-seven percent of retirees (n = 3,590) experienced postretirement employment, with 43% of retired women making the transition, compared with 50% of retired men. Marital status, earnings, and household wealth were significant only when gender interaction terms were introduced due to countervailing effects by gender. For women, being married and having high household wealth were negatively associated, and higher earnings positively associated, with labor force reentry; for men, wealth and earnings had the opposite effect. Hazard models show that divorced and separated women have a greater likelihood of labor force reentry than married women and that this difference increases with time out of the labor force, suggesting push factors that derive from economic vulnerability.
76 citations
TL;DR: Physical functioning problems, activities of daily living limitations, and behavioral problems are significant risk factors for at least three types of abuse and are significant for multiple abuse types.
Abstract: The authors investigated types and patterns of elder abuse by paid caregivers in long-term care and assessed the role of several risk factors for different abuses and for multiple abuse types. The results are based on a 2005 random-digit-dial survey of relatives of persons in long-term care. We computed occurrence rates and conditional occurrence rates for each of six abuse types: physical, caretaking, verbal, emotional, neglect, and material. Among older adults who have experienced at least one type of abuse, more than half (51.4%) have experienced another type of abuse. Physical functioning problems, activities of daily living limitations, and behavioral problems are significant risk factors for at least three types of abuse and are significant for multiple abuse types. The findings have implications for those monitoring the well-being of older adults in long-term care as well as those responsible for developing public health interventions.
73 citations
TL;DR: Examination of the association of religiosity and spirituality with fear of death and death acceptance attitudes in chronically ill older adults found self-efficacy beliefs, closeness to God, and age contributed significantly to the variance in the final model and were significantly associated with approach acceptance of death attitudes.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to examine the association of religiosity and spirituality with fear of death and death acceptance attitudes in chronically ill older adults. In-home interviews were conducted with 257 community-dwelling elders with chronic illness identified through an administrative database of ambulatory care clinics from an academic health center in Kansas City and through primary care practices participating in a practice-based research network in North Carolina. Hierarchical regression models were constructed for predictor variables and the outcomes of fear of death and approach acceptance of death attitudes. Self-efficacy beliefs (b = —.097, p < .001), anxiety (b = .026, p < .01), and physical functioning (b = .015, p < .01) were significantly associated with fear of death attitudes. Self-reported religiosity (b = —.389, p < .001), closeness to God (b = —.595, p < .001), and age (b = —.019, p < .001) contributed significantly to the variance in the final model and were significantly associ...
61 citations
TL;DR: Findings suggest that the combined public and private safety net in South Africa mitigates many of the consequences older adults could suffer when an adult child dies and leaves behind grandchildren needing care.
Abstract: This study uses panel data from Cape Town to document the role played by aging parents in caring for grandchildren who lose parents due to illnesses such as AIDS. We quantify the probabilities that older adults and their adult children provide financial support to orphaned grandchildren. We find significant transfers of public and private funds to older adults caring for orphans. Perhaps because of these transfers we find no differences in expenditure patterns between households with orphans and other older adult households. We also find no impact of either the death of a child or taking in orphaned grandchildren on adult well-being as measured by ability to work, depression, or self reported health. Our findings suggest that the combined public and private safety net in South Africa mitigates many of the consequences older adults could suffer when an adult child dies and leaves behind grandchildren needing care.
59 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated whether role discrepancies mediated the relationships between illness-related stressors (activities of daily living [ADL] limitations and problem behaviors) and burden (stress, relationship, and objective burden) for spouse caregivers.
Abstract: Using caregiver identity theory, the authors investigated whether role discrepancies mediated the relationships between illness-related stressors (activities of daily living [ADLs] limitations and problem behaviors) and burden (stress, relationship, and objective burden) for spouse caregivers. Participants completed measures of identity standards for spouse and caregiver roles and behaviors, burden, assistance with ADLs, and problem behaviors. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that role discrepancies completely mediated the relationships between ADLs and stress and relationship burden. Although role discrepancies mediated the relationships between problem behaviors and all forms of burden, there were direct relationships between problem behaviors and burden. Finally, participants who exceeded their relationship identity standards experienced greater burden. Supporting caregiver identity theory, the results suggest that ADL assistance is burdensome for caregivers when it highlights inconsisten...
56 citations
TL;DR: Findings show that demographic characteristics are the major determinants of elderly extended living, followed by resource availability, assimilation, and group origin, andAssimilation, on the other hand, is themajor determinant of group differences between native White and Asian and Hispanic elders.
Abstract: This study examines the relative importance of demographic, resource, and assimilation statuses in explaining the living arrangements of foreign- and native-born Asian and Hispanic elders from 11 origins in 2000 and accounting for why these groups have higher levels of extended living than native-born Whites. Drawing on the 2000 Public Use Microdata 5% Sample (PUMS) files and using logistic regression, the findings show that demographic characteristics are the major determinants of elderly extended living, followed by resource availability, assimilation, and group origin. Assimilation, on the other hand, is the major determinant of group differences between native White and Asian and Hispanic elders. While findings provide support for assimilation theory, the persistence of differentials across Asian and Hispanic groups after controlling for model covariates, and modest increases in extended living for most native-born Asian and Hispanic groups as well as native Whites in the 1990s underscores the enduring nature of ethnic diversity in living arrangements.
TL;DR: The authors demonstrate that the likelihood of achieving one’s preferred employment status is related to earlier work experiences including employment stability in midlife and self-employment, part-time employment, and private pension coverage across the life course.
Abstract: In this article, the authors evaluate relationships between midlife work experiences and the realization of preferences for full-time employment, part-time employment, and complete retirement at ag...
TL;DR: Caregiving did not affect physical health but did act to decrease mental health and perceived health over time, and the difference in health would widen over the three waves of the study.
Abstract: As the HIV/AIDS pandemic progresses in Africa, elders are increasingly responsible for the care of orphans. Several reports suggest that elderly Africans do not have the resources to provide care and are at risk of poor health, but few studies have systematically measured health of caregivers. The Kenyan Grandparents Study is a longitudinal study designed to compare elder Luo caregivers to noncaregiving peers. Several measures of health were collected, including body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, glucose, and hemoglobin. In addition, self-perceived health and mental health were measured using the MOS Short-Form 36 (SF-36). It was hypothesized that caregivers would have poorer health than noncaregivers and that the difference in health would widen over the three waves of the study. Caregiving did not affect physical health but did act to decrease mental health and perceived health over time.
TL;DR: In this paper, the degree to which siblings' behaviors and characteristics influence a child's caregiving was examined, and it was found that the more siblings a child had, the less care that child gave.
Abstract: This study examines the degree to which siblings’ behaviors and characteristics influence a child’s caregiving. A sample of 186 older parents in need of care with at least two adult children reported on characteristics and caregiving of all their children (N = 703). Multilevel regression models show that there is evidence of children’s joint caregiving efforts: The more care siblings give, the more care the child gives. Results demonstrate that the more sisters a child has, the less care that child gives. Children also substitute and support each other: The greater the number of siblings with partners and the lower the frequency of sibling emotional support exchanges with a parent, the more care the child gives. The study reflects the various outcomes of sibling solidarity when older parents become dependent.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explored the relationship between generalized resistance resources (GRRs), the sense of coherence (SOC), and the HE-DE continuum, and found that GRRs significantly predicted the HEDE continuum.
Abstract: The authors systematically explore relationships between generalized resistance resources (GRRs), the sense of coherence (SOC), and the healthease/dis-ease (HE-DE) continuum. A sample of 170 active older adults at the mean age of 67 years filled out a comprehensive questionnaire. The results indicate that 11 GRRs significantly predicted SOC (56% of variance accounted for) and that GRRs significantly predicted the HE-DE continuum (38%). Holding GRRs constant, SOC significantly accounted for 3% additional variance in health. Finally, SOC mediated GRRs’ effects on health. SOC proved to be a complete mediator for autonomy/identity resource gains, social external health locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, and a partial mediator for activity level and social support. The findings suggest that SOC plays a central role for health maintenance and health promotion in the third age because it pools resource influences on health. The authors recommend the application of salutogenic theory to intervention.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors discuss both older adults' and the researchers' views of the participatory process and analyze the key lessons and challenges that emerged from the research and raise a number of questions that require further analysis.
Abstract: The ethical and practical importance of actively involving older people in the research process is increasingly articulated in the gerontology literature. This article contributes to the literature by outlining a community-based participatory research project that centered on the design and administration of a questionnaire exploring older people’s use and perceptions of community services. The authors discuss both older adults’ and the researchers’ views of the participatory process. The key lessons and challenges that emerged from the research are analyzed using the nine principles of community-based participatory research outlined by Israel et al. The authors question whether older people in all instances seek extensive involvement in all aspects of participatory projects and raise a number of questions that require further analysis before a robust and viable understanding of participatory research that safeguards against the tokenistic involvement of older people can be developed.
TL;DR: European age discrimination legislation is discussed in the context of the U.S. Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) and related state laws, and enforcement and publicity are offered as possible explanations for the strength of these positive and negative effects.
Abstract: European age discrimination legislation is discussed in the context of the US Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA) and related state laws US law was originally introduced to protect productive older workers from age stereotypes, but more recently preventing age discrimination has become important as a means of keeping costs down on entitlement programs as the population ages Changes in enforcement, penalties, exemptions, length of time to file, and burden of proof have changed the effects of the laws over time The ADEA has had both positive effects on currently employed older workers and negative effects on the hiring of older workers Enforcement and publicity are offered as possible explanations for the strength of these positive and negative effects Age discrimination legislation in Europe, indicated in the Framework Directive 2000/78, is driven by economic and political considerations European legislation calls for less enforcement and more exemptions than the corresponding US cases which could lead to smaller effects on employment However, pensions, disability, unemployment, and social security potentially have a stronger effect on social norms for retirement age than does anti-discrimination legislation
TL;DR: Close family members, including parents, should be explicitly incorporated into adherence augmentation programs and provided adequate information to facilitate their role as long-term adherence partners, not only in Thailand but wherever ART recipients are closely linked to family members through living and caregiving arrangements.
Abstract: High levels of treatment adherence are crucial for the success of expanding ART treatment programs everywhere. Augmenting adherence through treatment supporters is one promising strategy. Most discussions focus on peers, especially members of PHA groups, for this purpose. Far less attention is given to family members and especially older age parents. Yet ART recipients often live with or nearby parents and other family members who are highly motivated to ensure the treatment's success. This study examines the extent that family members, especially parents, assist adherence in Thailand. Results indicate that most adult ART patients live with family members and over half live with or in the same locality as a parent. Family members, including parents, commonly remind ART patients to take medications, especially if coresident. Moreover, parents often remind patients to get resupplies and sometimes accompany them to appointments. Clearly close family members, including parents, should be explicitly incorporated into adherence augmentation programs and provided adequate information to facilitate their role as long-term adherence partners, not only in Thailand but wherever ART recipients are closely linked to family members through living and caregiving arrangements.
TL;DR: The study found that the impact of HIV/AIDS is substantial and is compounded greatly by gender dynamics in the household, and some older men and women feel at risk of HIV infection because of their caregiving activities.
Abstract: Despite the important consequences that HIV / AIDS is likely to have for older people in South Africa little empirical work has focused directly on this issue. However emerging evidence suggests that older people are increasingly affected by the AIDS pandemic. In many households older people often assume responsibility for the care of those who are sick and/or dying and for children orphaned by AIDS. This study uses qualitative and quantitative methods to provide insights into the multiple impacts of the HIV/AIDS pandemic on the lives of older men and women. The results show that some older men and women feel at risk of HIV infection because of their caregiving activities. Almost 17% of respondents report that they have ever cared for someone with HIV/AIDS with the percentage somewhat higher in rural areas. The study found that the impact of HIV/AIDS is substantial and is compounded greatly by gender dynamics in the household.
TL;DR: The authors find that a wide array of common childhood conditions and activity limitations were significant predictors of overall assessments of childhood health status.
Abstract: Numerous large cohort studies have begun collecting retrospective childhood health information. However, few studies have investigated the content and quality of such data. This study fills this ga...
TL;DR: Identifying circumstances influencing solo spouse caregiving differently among couples with frail wives and husbands facilitates gender-sensitive services.
Abstract: We explored whether gender moderated the influence of other factors on solo spousal caregiving. The subsample (N = 452) from the AHEAD study included elderly care recipients (CRs) receiving IADL assistance and their spouses. Logistic regression modeled the likelihood of solo spousal IADL care. Gender moderation was tested by product terms between CRs’ gender and measures of partners’ health, potential helpers, and sociodemographic characteristics. As numbers of CRs’ IADLs and couples’ proximate daughters increased, wives less often received care solely from their husbands, but husbands’ receipt of care from their wives was unaffected. Age differences between spouses and CRs affected solo spousal caregiving to wives and husbands in opposite ways. Regardless of gender, CRs’ number of ADL limitations and spouses with IADL or ADL limitations reduced the likelihood of solo spouse care. Identifying circumstances influencing solo spouse caregiving differently among couples with frail wives and husbands facilitates gender sensitive services.
TL;DR: It is advised that health care practice needs to encompass older adults’ health beliefs, which may be uniquely represented among different ethnic groups.
Abstract: This study examines completion of advance directives, highlighting ethnic differences between Korean and non-Hispanic White older adults in relation to health beliefs and knowledge. In this study, ...
TL;DR: The financial costs associated with caring for someone with a chronic illness and the reliance on family members with financial ability for material support, a common feature of African extended family systems, may account for the relative economic advantage of HIV caregivers.
Abstract: This article seeks to investigate the association between caregiving to someone with an HIV-related illness and the socioeconomic status of the caregiver using a population-based survey of 1,587 older people living in Nairobi slums. Findings indicate significant differences in living arrangements, wealth, income, and expenditure between HIV caregivers and noncaregivers. HIV caregivers lived in larger households and were also more likely to live in households with a large number of children younger than the age of 15 years. Whereas a high proportion of HIV caregivers were ranked highly in terms of wealth status, differences in per capita income and expenditure were not significant when household size and other confounders were accounted for. The financial costs associated with caring for someone with a chronic illness and the reliance on family members with financial ability for material support, a common feature of African extended family systems, may account for the relative economic advantage of HIV caregivers.
TL;DR: Estimating population group differences in the cognitive functioning of Israelis 50 years and older found that relative to veteran Israeli Jews, new immigrants from the former Soviet Union were significantly more likely to rate their reading ability as impaired and there was a significant interaction between population group and education on the arithmetic task.
Abstract: The study evaluates population group differences of Israelis 50 years and older in cognitive functioning. Groups were defined based on year of arrival and preferred language (e.g., veteran Jewish Israelis- n= 1,974; new immigrants from the former Soviet Union- n=187; and Arab Israelis- n=331). Using a cross-sectional analysis of the first wave of SHARE-Israel, we evaluate a representative sample of Israelis over the age of 50 stratified by population group. Cognitive screens assessed include time orientation, arithmetic, verbal learning, verbal recall, word fluency and subjective reading and writing abilities. To evaluate population group differences, we conducted multivariate analyses of each of the cognitive domains, controlling for age, gender, education, household income, and ever smoking. Relative to veteran Jewish Israelis, new immigrants from the former Soviet Unions were more likely to rate their reading ability as impaired (OR=2.47, 95% CI: 1.32-4.60). In addition, there was a significant interaction between population group and education on the arithmetic task (OR=.69, 95% CI: .58-.83). New immigrants from the former Soviet Union were less impaired than the other two groups especially at lower levels of education. New immigrants were more impaired on the verbal learning task (OR=2.65, 95% CI: 1.38-5.07). On the other hand, relative to veteran Israeli-Jews, Israeli-Arabs were significantly less likely to have impaired performance on the verbal recall task (OR=.31, 95% CI=.16-.60). The results demonstrate that overall, new immigrant from the Former Soviet Union exhibit greater difficulties on the verbal tasks, but not on the arithmetic task. The findings from the current study are somewhat in contrast with the international literature which tends to show that the majority culture outperforms relative to ethnic minorities.
TL;DR: A sufficiently supportive atmosphere likely exists in many localities to facilitate community-based efforts to mitigate the epidemic’s impact on affected families, and a broader view is needed that also encompasses attitudes and actions stemming from sympathy and friendship.
Abstract: Accounts of community reaction to persons with HIV/AIDS and their families typically focus only on negative reactions stemming from stigmatization with little acknowledgement of variation over time and across settings. To usefully guide local interventions, a broader view is needed that also encompasses attitudes and actions stemming from sympathy and friendship. We examine community reaction in Cambodia to families from the perspective of parents of adults who died of AIDS or currently receive antiretroviral therapy. Survey evidence and open-ended interviews reveal a mixture of reactions with respect to social relations, interactions with local officials, gossip, business patronage, funeral participation, and orphaned grandchildren. Positive support is often dominant and reactions typically improve substantially over time. Misplaced fears of contagion through casual contact underlie most negative reactions. Moral condemnation or blame is not evident as a source of negative reactions. Overall a sufficiently supportive atmosphere likely exists in many localities to facilitate community based efforts to mitigate the epidemic's impact on affected families.
TL;DR: Although together the ROA and JAIDS theme issues included 37 articles, only one in each dealt explicitly with the situation outside North America and only these same articles discussed consequences for older persons who were affected rather than infected by the disease.
Abstract: More than a decade ago, the November 1998 issue of Research on Aging (ROA) was devoted to the topic of HIV/AIDS and aging and stood out as one of the rare serious attempts to bring older persons into the discourse concerning the epidemic. It was preceded by an edited volume on the topic published almost a decade earlier (Riley, Ory, and Zablotsky 1989) and followed by a theme issue on the topic in June 2003 of JAIDS (Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes). All three collections were very welcome given the scant attention that was being paid to older persons in the context of HIV/ AIDS. However, each focused almost exclusively on the situation in the United States and on older persons who were either infected or at risk of infection with HIV. Although together the ROA and JAIDS theme issues included 37 articles, only one in each dealt explicitly with the situation outside North America and only these same articles discussed consequences for older persons who were affected rather than infected by the disease (Knodel, Watkins, and VanLandingham 2003; Sankar et al. 1998). This limited focus leaves open the need for research on older persons in relation to the epidemic in settings outside the United States who, even though not infected themselves, may be affected by the illness and death of others who are. The reality of the epidemic is that in 2007 only 4% of persons living with HIV worldwide and 1% of the deaths were in North America. In contrast, two thirds of the HIV caseload was in sub–Saharan Africa and
TL;DR: Results of hierarchical Cox regression models showed that besides sociodemographic effects, physical disability, physician visits, and medication consumption predicted mortality, and biological and physical risk factors predominated over mental risk factors when examining prediction of mortality among the old-old age population.
Abstract: When risk factors are examined concurrently, they tend to show mixed results in predicting mortality among the old-old. The purpose of this study was to compare a set of physical predictors with a set of mental predictors, all considered as most common and predictive in the literature, to assess their relative dominance in predicting mortality at old-old age. Based on Baltes’s incomplete architecture model and the disablement process, the authors postulated that physical predictors of mortality would diminish the impact of mental predictors of mortality. The database used for this study was the multidimensional survey of the Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Aging Study conducted from 1989 to 1992 with a follow-up of mortality after 10 years. Participants (N = 1,369) were drawn from a national sample of the Jewish Israeli population aged 75 to 94. The mean age of the sample was 83.52 (SD = 5.42). Results of hierarchical Cox regression models showed that besides sociodemographic effects (mainly age, gender, and marital status), physical disability, physician visits, and medication consumption predicted mortality. Mental predictors (cognitive impairment and life evaluation) lost their predictive power when the physical predictors were introduced. Hence, biological and physical risk factors predominated over mental risk factors when examining prediction of mortality among the old-old age population.
TL;DR: Based on role theory, a household-based convoy (HbC) was proposed as a support system comprised of four kinds of networks: household types, family, kinship, and friendship.
Abstract: Based on role theory, a household-based convoy (HbC) was proposed as a support system comprised of four kinds of networks: household types, family, kinship, and friendship. To test the feasibility of the support network concept, data from the 2001 Taiwan Social Change Survey were used to derive a latent structure with four latent classes. These classes consisted of the “prefamily convoy,” “pro-social convoy,” “mature convoy,” and the “extended convoy.” Their network characteristics revealed that the four latent classes corresponded to stages in the family life course. Moreover, these convoy subtypes had differential intergenerational support functions. Respondents from the pre-family and the pro-social convoys were found to provide fewer types of support to their parents but received more types of support from them. The findings also indicate that the household-based convoy is a role-related support network.