Showing papers in "Self and Identity in 2007"
TL;DR: The authors found a link between high attachment anxiety and unstable self-esteem that is independent of selfesteem level and attachment avoidance, conversely, was unrelated to selfesteem stability, consistent with the developmental and social-cognitive characteristics of attachment anxiety.
Abstract: Although it is known that adult attachment is associated with self-esteem level (i.e., whether individuals' typical feelings of self-worth are high or low), little is known about how the attachment system is connected to other important components of self-esteem. In the research reported here, we examined how aspects of the attachment system relate to stability of self-esteem (i.e., the extent to which individuals' current feelings of self-worth exhibit fluctuations). Our findings revealed a link between high attachment anxiety and unstable self-esteem that is independent of self-esteem level. Attachment avoidance, conversely, was unrelated to self-esteem stability. These results are consistent with the developmental and social-cognitive characteristics of attachment anxiety. They also are consistent with recent research showing that anxious attachment moderates the effect of social feedback on self-evaluations. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and practical implications of this research.
117 citations
TL;DR: The authors investigated the development of implicit social cognition (self-esteem, group identity, and group attitude) and their interrelationships in Hispanic American children (ages 5 to 12) and adults.
Abstract: We investigated the development of three aspects of implicit social cognition (self-esteem, group identity, and group attitude) and their interrelationships in Hispanic American children (ages 5 to 12) and adults. Hispanic children and adults showed positive implicit self-esteem and a preference for and identification with their in-group when the comparison group was another disadvantaged minority group (African American). However, challenging the long-held view that children's early intergroup attitudes are primarily egocentric, young Hispanic children do not show implicit preference for or identification with their in-group when the comparison was the more advantaged White majority. Results also supported predictions of cognitive-affective balance in the youngest children. Strikingly, balance was absent in adults, suggesting that in disadvantaged minority groups, cognitive-affective consistency may actually decline with age.
107 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors suggested that implementation intentions geared at strengthening self-efficacy should be a very helpful self-regulation strategy to achieve high scholastic test scores, and they showed that participants with selfefficacy strengthening implementation intentions outperformed the mere achievement goal intention participants.
Abstract: As both high self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1997) and forming implementation intentions (Gollwitzer & Sheeran, 2006) are known to improve goal attainment, it is suggested that implementation intentions geared at strengthening self-efficacy should be a very helpful self-regulation strategy to achieve high scholastic test scores. In Study 1, female participants had to perform a math test either with the goal intention of solving as many problems as possible or with an additional self-efficacy strengthening implementation intention. In Study 2, male participants worked on an analytic reasoning test under either a mere achievement goal intention, an additional self-efficacy strengthening implementation intention, or an additional self-efficacy strengthening goal intention. In both studies, participants with self-efficacy strengthening implementation intentions outperformed the mere achievement goal intention participants. Moreover, Study 2 showed that additional self-efficacy strengthening goal intentions we...
82 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the hypothesis that primed autonomy and control motivations would influence self-esteem in the direction of autonomy increasing and control decreasing SE and found that men showed greater reactivity to motivation priming and threat than women.
Abstract: Two studies examined the hypothesis that primed autonomy and control motivations would influence self-esteem (SE) in the direction of autonomy increasing and control decreasing SE. Explicit, implicit, and defensive (i.e., the discrepancy between implicit and explicit) SE were measured. Results confirmed the hypothesis for implicit and for defensive SE. There were substantial sex differences, with men showing greater reactivity to motivation priming and threat than women. Results are interpreted in terms of a self-determination theory view of motivation and SE (Deci & Ryan, 2000).
81 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the relationship among self-esteem level, temporal selfesteem instability, gender, and self-reported aggression, and found that selfesteem level was negatively related to attitudinal aggression.
Abstract: The present research examined the relationships among self-esteem level, temporal self-esteem instability, gender, and self-reported aggression. Self-esteem level was negatively related to attitudinal aggression, although this relationship varied as a joint function of self-esteem instability and gender. It was strongest among men with unstable self-esteem and among women with stable self-esteem. Although self-esteem instability and narcissism (Study 3) were each positively related to behavioral aggression, the relationship between narcissism and attitudinal aggression varied as a function of self-esteem instability. The relationship between narcissism and attitudinal aggression was positive among people with stable self-esteem, but negative among people with unstable self-esteem, regardless of gender. The importance of considering gender, self-esteem instability, and narcissism in the self-esteem/aggression debate is discussed.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report on the development and initial validation of such a measure, the Sense of Self Scale (SOSS), and evaluate the reliability and validity of the SOSS.
Abstract: Clinicians have identified the need for a measure of the strength of sense of self (e.g., Gunderson, 1984). This article reports on the development and initial validation of such a measure—the Sense of Self Scale (SOSS). Three studies involving a total of over 1200 undergraduate college students were conducted to evaluate the reliability and validity of the SOSS. Results indicate a unidimensional factor structure, a high degree of internal consistency and test – retest reliability, excellent convergent validity, and strong predictive and discriminant validity with respect to a checklist measure of self-expressive behaviors and experiences. Although these preliminary psychometric results are quite promising, further studies are needed to establish the scale's ability to predict theory-relevant observable behaviors, its ability to discriminate between a clinical and a normal population, and its sensitivity to treatment response.
59 citations
TL;DR: For example, the authors found that those with high implicit self-esteem reported higher levels of maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism than those with low implicit selfesteem, and the results of this study support the glimmer-of-hope hypothesis.
Abstract: It has recently been proposed that individuals with discrepant low self-esteem (i.e., low explicit self-esteem but high implicit self-esteem) may be characterized as possessing a glimmer of hope (Spencer, Jordan, Logel, & Zanna, 2005). That is, these individuals may exhibit more optimism and less self-protection than is typically seen among individuals with low self-esteem. Consistent with the glimmer of hope hypothesis, we proposed that individuals with discrepant low self-esteem would report relatively high levels of perfectionism. The results of the present study support this prediction: Among individuals with low explicit self-esteem, those with high implicit self-esteem reported higher levels of maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism. Overall, the results suggest that the inclusion of implicit self-esteem enhances our understanding of the relationship between perfectionism and explicit self-esteem.
59 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the impact of subliminal self-activation on affect regulation among action- versus state-oriented individuals and found that implicit self may play a key role in affect regulation and volitional action control.
Abstract: Two studies examined the impact of subliminal self-activation on affect regulation among action- versus state-oriented individuals. Action orientation is a regulatory mode characterized by decisiveness and initiative, whereas state orientation is a regulatory mode characterized by indecisiveness and hesitation. According to the model of intuitive affect regulation (Koole & Kuhl, in press), action-oriented individuals have stronger associations between the implicit self and affect regulation systems than state-oriented individuals. This prediction was tested in an affective priming task (Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986). As expected, subliminal self primes triggered down-regulation of negative affect among action-oriented participants. By contrast, subliminal self primes triggered persistence of negative affect among state-oriented participants. Supraliminal self primes had no parallel effects. The implicit self may thus play a key role in affect regulation and volitional action control.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the influence of social status and gender salience on the malleability of men's gender self-concepts at an automatic versus controlled level was tested, where participants were placed in a superior or a subordinate role relative to a male or female confederate for a joint task; subsequently their automatic and controlled beliefs about themselves were measured.
Abstract: The present study tested the influence of social status and gender salience on the malleability of men's gender self-concepts at an automatic versus controlled level. Male participants were placed in a superior or subordinate role relative to a male or female confederate for a joint task; subsequently their automatic and controlled beliefs about themselves were measured. We predicted first, that men placed in a subordinate role would protect against the threat to their self-concept by automatically self-stereotyping more than men placed in a superior role. As a secondary hypothesis, we predicted that the presence of a female interaction partner would increase the situational salience of gender, which in turn would evoke gender stereotypic self-descriptions. Results confirmed these hypotheses. These data suggest that men's gender self-concepts are malleable and that situational cues differentially affect self-conceptions at an automatic and controlled level.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate manipulating implicit theories as a function of participants' self-theories and investigate the relationship between implicit theories and different ability levels, and find that entity theorists experienced less anxiety when exposed to a malleable prime versus a fixed prime, whereas entity theorists were unaffected by the primes.
Abstract: Two studies investigate manipulating implicit theories as a function of participants' self-theories. Women were primed with a malleable or fixed view of math intelligence before completing a math test. Study 1 utilized highly skilled participants and revealed that entity theorists experienced less anxiety when exposed to a malleable prime versus a fixed prime; however, entity theorists in the fixed condition performed better on the math test than incremental theorists. Incremental theorists were unaffected by the malleable prime. Study 2 utilized moderately skilled participants and found that incremental theorists attempted more math questions when exposed to a malleable prime versus a fixed prime, whereas entity theorists were unaffected by the primes. The relationship between self-theories and different ability levels is discussed.
52 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that undergraduate participants with low implicit self-esteem, as assessed by an Internet version of the Implicit Association Test, reacted to an experimentally manipulated academic threat with zeal about their opinions toward capital punishment, the US invasion of Iraq, and suicide bombing.
Abstract: Theorists have long proposed that vulnerable people turn to zeal in the face of perceived self-threats because doing so somehow masks the threats. The present study supports this idea, and suggests that low implicit self-esteem may be a key vulnerability that predisposes individuals toward defensive zeal. Undergraduate participants with low implicit self-esteem, as assessed by an Internet version of the Implicit Association Test, reacted to an experimentally manipulated academic threat with zeal about their opinions toward capital punishment, the US invasion of Iraq, and suicide bombing. Significant effects were found for two aspects of zeal—extremism and exaggerated estimates of social consensus for personal opinions. Results for each issue were independent of whether participants were in favor of, or against the issue.
TL;DR: The authors explored whether self-esteem, defined as both an implicit and an explicit evaluation of the self, moderates the apology process and found that those with high explicit and low implicit selfesteem would focus on and respond to the aspects of the apology that confirmed the harm done by the transgressor.
Abstract: The purpose of this research was to explore whether self-esteem, defined as both an implicit and an explicit evaluation of the self, moderates the apology – forgiveness process. It was predicted that those with defensive or fragile self-esteem (i.e., high explicit and low implicit self-esteem) would focus on and respond to the aspects of the apology that confirmed the harm done by the transgressor, rather than the transgressor's remorse, and thus respond with less forgiveness and more avoidance and revenge than when the transgressor does not apologize. Participants experienced a transgression, after which the transgressor either apologized or not. As predicted, compared to those with secure self-esteem, those with defensive self-esteem were the least forgiving and the most vengeful and avoidant after receiving an apology. These findings suggest that apologies may not have their intended effect when offered to individuals with defensive self-esteem. Potential mechanisms of this relationship were also examined.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used implicit self-esteem techniques, along with traditional self-report measures, into a longitudinal investigation of depressive vulnerability, and found that the self-other implicit association test was the only selfesteem measure to yield the hypothesized three-way interaction with cognitive risk and negative events in predicting depressive symptoms over time.
Abstract: Research investigating vulnerable self-esteem as a risk factor for depression has largely relied on self-report measures, which are susceptible to self-presentational biases and neglect individuals' automatic, nonconscious self-attitudes. Accordingly, the current study incorporated implicit self-esteem techniques, along with traditional self-report measures, into a longitudinal investigation of depressive vulnerability. Findings revealed that in contrast to the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Initials-Preference Task, the self – other Implicit Association Test was the only self-esteem measure to yield the hypothesized three-way interaction with cognitive risk and negative events in predicting depressive symptoms over time. Specifically, for individuals at high cognitive risk for depression, the effects of life stress on depressive symptoms were especially pernicious for those demonstrating lower self – other Implicit Association Test scores.
TL;DR: The authors examined the role of implicit theories of personality in the relation between actual and ideal self-discrepancies and self-esteem, and found that those with greater actual-ideal self-disparity reported lower selfesteem.
Abstract: Two studies examined the role of implicit theories of personality in the relation between actual – ideal self-discrepancies and self-esteem. Replicating previous work, we found that those with greater actual – ideal self-discrepancies reported lower self-esteem. Moreover, we hypothesized that this outcome would be especially stronger for those possessing an entity theory of personality (i.e., believing that personality is relatively fixed and unchangeable) than for those possessing an incremental theory of personality (i.e., believing that personality is relatively flexible and malleable). Both studies supported this prediction, using either a nomothetic measure of actual – ideal self-discrepancy (Study 1) or an idiographic measure of actual – ideal self-discrepancy (Study 2). In other words, the relation between self-discrepancy and self-evaluation was stronger for entity theorists than for incremental theorists. Implications of these findings for topics ranging from emotional regulation to educational s...
TL;DR: The authors investigated whether predictions made by optimal distinctiveness theory could be moderated by individual differences in uncertainty orientation, and whether this difference has implications for how people perceive their values relative to comparison groups.
Abstract: The present study investigated whether predictions made by optimal distinctiveness theory (Brewer, 1991) could be moderated by individual differences in uncertainty orientation, and whether optimal distinctiveness has implications for how people perceive their values relative to comparison groups. It was hypothesized that certainty-oriented persons, compared to uncertainty-oriented ones, should place greater importance on and see themselves as more similar in values to relevant comparison groups, when the need for assimilation is aroused but not necessarily when the need for differentiation is activated. One hundred five men and women, pre-assessed for their level of uncertainty orientation, were asked to describe two situations where they felt too immersed in or too apart from others around them. They then rated the importance of several reference groups and the importance of 10 value types for the self, their ethnic group, and other students at their university. The results supported the hypotheses.
TL;DR: In this paper, a study on self-presentation in everyday social encounters, 100 undergraduate students described their social interactions for two weeks using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record.
Abstract: In a study on self-presentation in everyday social encounters, 100 undergraduate students described their social interactions for two weeks using a variant of the Rochester Interaction Record. For each interaction, participants described their self-presentational goals and perceived success in achieving these goals. A series of multilevel random coefficient modeling analyses found that wanting to be liked was a particularly important goal. Moreover, goals and perceived success depended strongly on the type of situation people were in. For example, people wanted to appear competent during work-related interactions but interesting and attractive during romantic interactions. Overall, participants were relatively satisfied with their self-presentations. Self-presentational goals were more important in interactions with close others (family and friends) than with strangers or acquaintances. Furthermore, interactions with close others were considered especially successful. Participants felt least successful ab...
TL;DR: In this article, the explicit and implicit self-concepts of college women were examined, and it was shown that motherhood plays a more important role in the selfconcept of undergraduate women than self-reports would suggest.
Abstract: Three studies examined the explicit and implicit self-concepts of college women. Participants completed self-report measures and implicit association tests measuring identification with the concepts “college education” and “motherhood.” Explicitly, participants identified more with college education than with motherhood. Implicitly, however, participants identified more with motherhood than with college education. The dissociation between mean levels of explicit and implicit identifications was more pronounced for students without children than for mothers (Study 2). In line with principles of affective – cognitive consistencies, the more motherhood was linked to the self, the stronger the correlation between attitude toward motherhood and self-esteem (Study 3). The findings show a clear discrepancy between explicit and implicit self-knowledge and reveal that motherhood plays a more important role in the self-concept of undergraduate women than self-reports would suggest.
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TL;DR: The experience of the self as a stream of consciousness was first described by William James (1890/1983) as discussed by the authors, who described it as a'stream of consciousness' experience.
Abstract: William James (1890/1983) famously described the experience of the self as a stream of consciousness. There is little doubt that understanding the conscious experience of the self is important, but...
TL;DR: This article found that women with low self-esteem who completed such an affirmation reported greater acceptance by their partners than those who did not reflect on such values, and female LSEs who thought about a shared value showed greater accessibility of acceptance-related words, felt closer to, and more in love with their partners.
Abstract: People with low self-esteem (LSEs) tend to have unwarranted insecurities about their relationships (Murray, Holmes, & Griffin, 2000). We examine whether LSEs' perceptions of their partners' acceptance can be bolstered by thinking about a value that they share with their partner. Study 1 showed that female LSEs who completed such an affirmation reported greater acceptance by their partners than those who did not reflect on such values. Study 2 showed that female LSEs who thought about a shared value showed greater accessibility of acceptance-related words, felt closer to, and more in love with their partners than those who did not think about a shared value or who thought about an important value they did not share with their partner. In both studies female HSEs were relatively unaffected by the affirmation manipulation.
TL;DR: In this article, a new self-esteem scale (CPI-SE) was derived from the California Psychological Inventory, which was used to facilitate life-span research using existing longitudinal studies.
Abstract: When interest in self-esteem exploded in the 1980s, many longitudinal studies were already under way and thus did not administer self-esteem measures. Consequently, not much is known about the developmental course of self-esteem during adulthood. In order to facilitate life-span research using existing longitudinal studies, a new self-esteem scale (CPI-SE) was derived from the California Psychological Inventory. Study 1 documented the internal consistency and test – retest reliability of the CPI-SE, as well as its convergent validity by comparing it to three commonly used measures of self-esteem. Study 2 examined the nomological network of the CPI-SE by relating it to interviewer ratings of self-esteem, affect, coping style, social skills, intelligence, and physical attractiveness, obtained with the California Adult Q-Set. Together, these two studies provide evidence for the construct validity of the CPI-SE.
TL;DR: This paper investigated the effects of power, gender, and gender of partner on content (agency and communal themes) and structure (differentiated and integrated cognitive style) of autobiographical memories for previous power experiences.
Abstract: This study investigated the effects of power, gender, and gender of partner on content (agency and communal themes) and structure (differentiated and integrated cognitive style) of autobiographical memories for previous power experiences. The results showed that assigned power affected memory content, with helpers including more communal themes in their memories. Gender also affected memory structure, with females structuring memories in a more integrated style, and males in a more differentiated style. Assigned power significantly interacted with gender of partner in affecting the memory content and structure. Helpers who interacted with female leaders structured memories in a more integrated style. Helpers who interacted with male leaders structured memories in a more differentiated style. Participants who interacted with females included more communal themes in their memories.
TL;DR: In this article, the development of multiple in-group identities among minority group members within a higher status majority was investigated in 29 Southern Italian students living in Northern Italy, and participants strongly identified with the ingroup, and those who had spent more time in the north simultaneously displayed increased implicit identification with the out-group.
Abstract: The present research investigated the development of multiple in-group identities among minority group members within a higher status majority. Explicit and implicit identification with the in-group (Southern Italy), out-group (Northern Italy), and a superordinate category (Italy) was examined in 29 Southern Italian students living in Northern Italy. On average, participants strongly identified with the in-group, and those who had spent more time in the north simultaneously displayed increased implicit identification with the out-group. As predicted, incorporation of the out-group into the self occurred only in participants who were not already strongly identified with the superordinate category. Implications for intergroup relations and well being of minority group members are discussed.