Showing papers in "Women & Health in 1992"

Worker and mother roles, spillover effects, and psychological distress.

Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between the occupancy and quality of multiple-roles and psychological distress in a stratified random sample of 403 women employed as licensed practical nurses and social workers We examined the main effects of the quality of the employee and parent roles and the interaction effects between these variables Negative- and positive-spillover effects, from job to parenting and from parenting to job, were examined in an attempt to illuminate the processes by which multiple roles affect employed mothers' vulnerability or resilience to psychological distress We found no negative-spillover effects from job to parenting or from parenting to job, but we did find positive-spillover effects from job to parenting Women with rewarding jobs were protected from the negative mental-health effects of troubled relationships with their children This protection accrued to employed mothers regardless of their partnership status or the age of their children Although based on cross-sectional analyses, these findings suggest mechanisms by which employed mothers reap a mental-health advantage from multiple roles, even when some of those roles are stressful

Positive-Spillover Effects from Job to Home: A Closer Look

Abstract: What is the association between subjective experiences in two roles, employee and mother, and women's psychological distress? Previous research indicated that employed mothers with troubled mother-child relationships reported high levels of psychological distress, unless they were in rewarding jobs. In this paper, using data from the same sample of 228 employed mothers, we explored further the above finding by addressing two related questions: (1) which job rewards mitigate the relationship between parent-role quality and psychological distress?; and (2) which parental concerns are buffered by these stress mitigators? The main finding was that having a rewarding job per se did not automatically serve as a parent-stress mitigator. Although several job-reward factors (e.g., Helping Others at Work, Challenge), were associated with reports of low distress, Challenge was the only job-reward factor that mitigated parental stress. Thus, the previously reported positive-spillover effect from work to home was attributable to the presence of rewards from challenging work. However, Challenge buffers only particular parent concerns. For employed mothers, a job high in rewards from Challenge mitigates the distress associated with Disaffection (not Burden or Safety) in their relationships with their children.

Maternal demographic, situational and psychosocial factors and their relationship to enrollment in prenatal care: a review of the literature.

Abstract: Whether or not a woman enrolls in prenatal care in a timely fashion is a major predictor of pregnancy outcome. In this review, we consider maternal demographic, situational and psychosocial factors which have been studied with relation to enrollment in prenatal care. Paying increased attention to some situational barriers such as problems with child care or transportation, and a number of psychosocial factors such as unplanned pregnancy and negative feelings about medical care, holds promise in achieving improved utilization of prenatal care.

The triple threat: a discussion of gender, class, and race differences in weight.

Abstract: Gender, poverty and race, the "triple threat" referred to in the title, are three major risk factors that contribute to the high prevalence of weight-related problems in this country. Current psychological literature on weight management has generally ignored the effects of these variables and their implications for developing interventions for underserved populations which include women, minorities and poor people. The present paper discusses the literature on the effects of gender, race, and class on weight levels and associated psychosocial variables. Conclusions drawn illustrate that weight is a major issue for women, and that race and class also have effects on weight levels which can affect health status. Areas of further exploration and of action are identified to address problems that women face regarding weight.

Effects of a combination of evening primrose oil (gamma linolenic acid) and fish oil (eicosapentaenoic + docahexaenoic acid) versus magnesium, and versus placebo in preventing pre-eclampsia.

Abstract: In a placebo controlled, partially double-blinded, clinical trial, a combination of evening primrose oil and fish oil was compared to Magnesium Oxide, and to a Placebo in preventing Pre-Eclampsia of Pregnancy. All were given as nutritional supplements for six months to a group of primiparous and multiparous pregnant women. Some of these women had personal or family histories of hypertension (21%). Only those patients who received prenatal care at the Central Maternity Hospital for Luanda were included in the study. Compared to the Placebo group (29%), the group receiving the mixture of evening primrose oil and fish oil containing Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) had a significantly lower incidence of edema (13%, p = 0.004). The group receiving Magnesium Oxide had statistically significant fewer subjects who developed hypertension of pregnancy. There were 3 cases of eclampsia, all in the Placebo group.

Sociodemographic correlates of alcohol consumption among African-American and white women.

Abstract: Correlates of abstention and heavier drinking were examined among 654 African-American and 474 white women, aged 19-70+, from a representative sample of households in Erie County, New York. Discriminant function analysis was employed to investigate the relationship between alcohol consumption and race, age, church attendance, family history of alcohol problems, household density, marriage, socioeconomic status (SES), employment and parity. Abstention was compared with drinking, and light/moderate drinking was compared with heavier drinking in the total sample and within each race. Compared to drinkers, abstainers were older, more religious, more likely to be African-American, or to be of lower SES. Racial differences in the correlates of abstention were found with respect to church attendance (positive association in African- Americans only), SES (negative association in African-Americans only), and household density (positive association in whites only). Compared to light/moderate drinkers, heavier drink...

Women's perceptions about the way social roles promote or constrain personal nutrition care.

Abstract: Research suggests that roles may affect women's health promoting behavior. This study was designed to discover, understand and develop hypotheses about the ways in which women's social roles influence their attitudes and beliefs about personal nutrition care. In-depth interviews were conducted with 36 married mothers, both employed and homemakers, at three different life stages. Interviews were analyzed using the constant comparative method of qualitative analysis. These data suggest that social roles influence women's attitudes about personal nutrition care in both positive and negative ways; this influence is modified by women's changing interpretations of their family roles at different life stages. The results have important implications for the prevention of chronic disease among women.

Health value and gender in predicting health protective behavior.

Abstract: This research analyzes the influence of selected social psychological factors (health locus of control and health value), social support factors (influence of parents and peers, organizational involvement, and reliance on others during stressful times), and health-specific factors (recent health crisis and self-assessment of health status) on participation in health protective behaviors by males and females. While much research has focused on identifying determinative factors (often with inconsistent findings), little research has been directed to understanding if and how predictive factors vary by gender. Data for the research were obtained from personal interviews with 167 undergraduate college students collected during the fall semester of their freshman year and again during their sophomore year. Female students averaged statistically significant more health protective behaviors than did male students, and increased involvement in HPBs from their freshman to sophomore years (while male students' parti...

Race, class and multiple role strains and gains among women employed in the service sector.

Abstract: Race and social class differences in the quality of job and parenting experiences, and multiple role gains and strains, are examined in a sample of 229 black and white female social workers and licensed practical nurses. Both race and class differences in job-role quality were found, but only class differences were found in parenting concerns. Race and class differences were found in multiple role gains and strains.

Occupational stress, social support, and depression among black and white professional-managerial women.

Abstract: This study employed a quota sample of 200 black and white professional-managerial women from the Memphis, Tennessee, area to explore the relationships among occupational stress, social support, and well-being. Data were gathered through face-to-face, focused life history interviews. Depression was measured using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD). Social support for one's career was assessed from three sources: family, friends, and co-workers, and measures of occupational stress included workload, unfair/impersonal treatment, and trouble with boss or subordinates. Using multiple regression techniques, the findings of this study indicate that there are complex differences in levels of social support, occupational stress, and depression across social structural dimensions (race, class background, supervisory status, marital status, parental status) for this sample, including significant two-and three-way interactions. Trouble with boss or subordinates was also found to be related t...

Job stress, psychosocial strain, and physical health problems in women employed full-time outside the home and homemakers.

Abstract: A pair of studies was conducted to investigate for both women employed full-time outside the home and homemakers: (a) relations between job-related stress and various indices of psychosocial strain and reported physical health problems; and (b) social support and number of children in the home in regard to direct relations with indices of psychosocial strain and physical health problems as well as moderating effects on relations between job stress and these indices. Self-report data were collected from 91 women employed outside the home and 95 homemakers. For both groups of women, more quantitative overload was associated with more tension and health problems. Greater quantitative overload was associated with more marital dissatisfaction for homemakers but not for women employed outside the home. Greater underutilization of skills for both groups of women was associated with more self-reported tension and poorer quality of marital relations but was not associated with health problems. Less reported tension was associated with greater overall social support for homemakers and greater social support from supervisors for women employed outside the home. Better quality of marital relationships was associated with greater overall social support for homemakers and greater social support from husbands and relatives/friends for women employed outside the home. For women employed outside the home, social support from supervisors and coworkers were found to moderate some of the relations between job stress and measures of psychosocial strain. Social support for homemakers, however, evidenced no moderating effects for relations involving job stress. Possibly because of low mean number and small variability in number of children in these samples, no direct relations or moderating effects were found for number of children for either group of women.

Body Shape Satisfaction in Female Exercisers and Nonexercisers

Abstract: Twenty-eight high frequency exercisers, twenty-six moderate frequency exercisers, and twenty nonexercisers were recruited to examine the relationship between exercise and body shape satisfaction in women. All subjects were within average body weight and body fat percentage, and those subjects who reported the clinical features of anorexia nervosa and/or bulimia nervosa were not included in the data analysis. Results showed that the high frequency exercisers had a significantly more negative view of their body shape than a group of moderate exercisers and nonexercisers. In addition, high frequency exercisers were more likely to continue to exercise even when feeling ill than were moderate exercisers. Group differences between moderate and high frequency exercisers were not found for exercising while injured. Differences in exercise attitudes and habits of the two groups are discussed in addition to their reasons for exercising.

Women and Sexually Transmitted Diseases

Abstract: This paper presents a brief review of historical developments in women's health care. It describes the current campaign against sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and assesses the campaign's success in light of its history and the reality of women's lives. The authors suggest that women are forced into a double-bind in which they are expected to take responsibility for the prevention of STDs although they may not have the ability to do so. Modifications are suggested which take into account gender-role socialization and social group norms.

Women in clerical jobs: spousal role satisfaction, stress, and coping.

Abstract: Little is known about the qualitative components of women's multiple roles or about women's perceptions and subjective feelings about their occupational and domestic roles, although all of these factors modulate health outcomes. The research upon which this manuscript is based was designed to respond to the need for understanding the daily experiences of women in clerical jobs. The data about spousal role satisfactions, stress and coping strategies, as perceived and articulated by them, indicates there are almost an equal number of satisfying and stressful aspects of the spousal relationship. Examples of the satisfying aspects are companionship, reciprocity, and interaction; while stressful aspects are inequality of tasks, disagreements and domination. Women in this study cope by using strategies that are more solitary in nature. They identify very little power to negotiate support and tangible assistance.

Sexual exploitation in advertising health and wellness products.

Abstract: This paper examines the way women are portrayed by the media in photographs advertising health and wellness products. Data were collected from five different health and fitness magazines. For purposes of his study, only advertisements in which women appeared were used in the analysis (N = 191). Findings suggest that a high percent of advertisements: (1) place women in submissive positions to men; (2) place women in unnatural poses; (3) emphasize dismemberment of body parts; (4) focus on sexuality rather than wellness.

Health Status and Health Care Utilization Among New York City Home Attendants: An Illustration of the Needs of Working Poor, Immigrant Women

Abstract: In this paper, the health needs and health care utilization patterns of home attendants and their families have been studied as an illustration of those likely to be found among working poor, immigrant women and their children. Despite tremendous growth in the number of immigrants, studies to date provide only limited information regarding the specific health needs and patterns of health care utilization among such women and their children. As part of a longitudinal study on the impact of insurance on health status and health care utilization, 387 female, immigrant home attendants were interviewed. Data were also gathered on 355 of their minor children. These women and children were found to be less likely than other Americans to make use of basic health services, despite the fact that they are more likely to indicate fair or poor health status. This is true even in comparison to poor or uninsured Americans. Immigrant attendants in fair or poor health report an average annual visit rate of 4.1 ambulatory ...

A prospective study of women's health: the effects of stress, hardiness, locus of control, Type A behavior, and physiological reactivity.

Abstract: This study was a five-year follow-up of women who had participated in a previous experiment. At time one, we obtained measures of hardiness, Type A behavior, locus of control, stress, illness, and physiological reactivity. At time two, we obtained measures of illness for the past twelve months. Multiple regression analyses support the hypotheses that both hardiness and locus of control buffer the effects of stress on illness. Furthermore, Type A classification was associated with greater illness frequency and resting systolic blood pressure predicted future health status. An examination of all variables simultaneously revealed that future illness frequency is best predicted by locus of control x stress, high resting systolic blood pressure and low systolic reactivity. Future illness severity was best predicted by locus of control and resting systolic blood pressure. These results support the hypotheses that hardiness and locus of control buffer the effects of stress on health in women employed as clerical workers; however, the predictive power of hardiness in these women is largely accounted for by the contribution of locus of control.

Women's employment, social support, and mortality.

Abstract: This study uses a longitudinal design to examine the extent to which social support at work is protective against death and the degree to which it explains mortality differences between employed women and those not in paid employment. Women's total role responsibilities and community involvement, as an alternative source of social support and social integration, are also considered in the analysis. The outcome examined is mortality risk over a 15 year period. The 1140 women included in this study were randomly selected from among members of a large HMO and were part of a household interview conducted in 1970-71. Medical and vital records for 15 years post interview period are linked with the survey data. The results of this analysis suggest that social support at work is protective against mortality among employed women and contributes to mortality risk differences between employed and nonemployed women. While the relative hazard of death for nonemployed women who have some community involvement is greater than for employed women, the difference is not statistically significant. Community involvement may provide an alternative, albeit weaker, avenue for gaining some of the same advantages available in paid employment. Future research directions are discussed.

Ergonomic analysis of work activity of data entry clerks in the computerized service sector can reveal unrecognized skills.

Abstract: Women are highly represented in those computer service jobs which are supposed to require the lowest level of qualification. The complexity of the activities which contribute to accomplishing such tasks in real life is usually unrecognized, as are the skills needed to perform these activities. The requirements of one such job, held by 7 women in a university administration, have been documented by ergonomic analysis. According to the supervisors, little mental effort was required, and "the employees do the job without even thinking about it." However, study of the real tasks involved revealed that the job required a great deal of innovative thinking, all of it unrecognized by the employer, and some of it actually forbidden. However, because the knowledge was not arrived at through systematic training, it is fragmentary and does not permit the employee to be fully autonomous or to transfer her skills to other jobs.

Women and mental health: two traditions of feminist research.

Abstract: Gender differences in mental health have been the focus of much research and debate in several academic disciplines. This paper reviews the literature regarding the socio-cultural dimensions of women's mental health in the United States. Feminist scholarship on mental health has followed two lines of inquiry. The first, a social causation approach, examines the features of women's lives that enhance or undermine well-being. The social constructionist perspective involves critical analyses of methodology and conceptions of mental health and illness. This body of literature suggests that the findings of gender differences in mental health are artifactual and focuses on the sexism of psychiatry. Although these bodies of work have remained largely distinct and have been criticized as contradictory, both are important ingredients of a general feminist perspective on mental health. Feminist therapy is used as a model for a synthesis of approaches.

Primary care arrangements and access to care among African-American women in three Chicago communities.

Abstract: African-American women of child-bearing age residing in three high-risk communities in Chicago were surveyed regarding their primary care arrangements and access to care (n = 552). This study examined factors which differentiated women who used office-based practices from those who used institutional settings (community clinics, health department clinics, hospital-based clinics) for primary care. Results of multivariate analysis indicate that women who used office-based practices were more likely than those who used institutional settings to see the same provider, to walk to their provider, to have less travel time and to walk in without an appointment. They were less likely to be hospitalized in the past year and less likely to report the availability of family planning at their usual source of care. Satisfaction with care, insurance status and sociodemographic characteristics were not associated with use of a particular facility type. Implications for organizing comprehensive health services for this po...

Reducing Distress Associated with Pelvic Examinations: A Stimulus Control Intervention

Abstract: The effect of a new pelvic examination gown on patients' experienced discomfort during pelvic examination was tested. It was hypothesized that a better designed gown would reduce reported distress. Subjects were 87 patients at a private gynecology clinic. Age ranged from 17 to 72. Informed consent was obtained and patients were randomly assigned to either the experimental gown or the standard drape condition. Following examination, subjects completed questionnaires assessing demographic characteristics, state and trait anxiety, desired changes in pelvic examination procedures, and reactions to the examination. The attending nurse recorded heart rate and blood pressure. Results supported the hypotheses. Experimental subjects rated the gown as more comfortable than control subjects rated the drape. Experimental subjects desired fewer changes in exam procedures than control subjects, indicating that the gown provided them with an overall more comfortable experience.

How pregnant workers see their work, its risks and the right to precautionary leave in Québec.

Abstract: In 1981, the Quebec government passed a law providing "precautionary leave" or reassignment to other jobs for pregnant workers exposed to a risk for their health or that of their fetus. This measure was much more popular than expected, with about 30% of pregnant workers taking leave in 1987. Uncertainty about what constitutes a risk for pregnancy, conflicts between views of pregnancy as a social or private act, and differing ideas on employers' responsibility for protection of pregnant workers have combined with worries about cost to stimulate debate on this law. Since 1986, there has been pressure on the government to restrict access to precautionary leave. This article describes research designed to answer some of the questions raised during the debate. Data banks of the Health and Safety Commission and responses of 2500 women workers were examined to characterize the jobs of women who did and those who did not take leave. Leave was usually taken by those who worked in sectors traditionally associated w...

The parental leave debate: implications for policy relevant research

Abstract: Legislative activity regarding parental and family medical leave has been intense, with heated debate, in both national and state political arenas. Proponents of legislation report that policy is needed because of women's increasing rate of labor force participation and the concomitant shortage of substitute infant care. Benefits of policy are presumed to include women's health and parent-child bonding. However, no direct empirical evidence exists to support these assumptions. Opponents of legislation say that the cost of policy is burdensome to employers. However, the General Accounting Office reports that the only measurable net costs to employers associated with the federal bill will be to cover the leave takers' health insurance premiums. This literature review examines the above issues and identifies a policy relevant research agenda, crucial to the development of rational and humane policy.

Assessing health care delivery to male versus female veterans.

Abstract: The study reported was undertaken to explore allegations that women veterans have not received the quality of care in the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) that is typical of that being received by their male counterparts The study consisted of a chart review of male and female inpatients (n = 114) and telephone interviews with a subsample of these veterans (n = 55) treated at a large metropolitan VA hospital Overall, chart documentation was poor, regardless of gender On average, two-thirds of males and females receive regular gender-specific examinations, although the number is somewhat lower for females Both women and men were quite satisfied with the care they received Future studies should focus on the evaluation of workable solutions to providing equitable health care to women veterans that are already in operation

Integration of women into traditionally masculine jobs.

Abstract: Jobs are often allocated according to sex, although this distribution is not always justified by biological differences between men and women. Ergonomic analysis of sex-typed jobs in a clothing factory and in a plastics factory revealed that the total weight lifted in women's jobs exceeded that in a typical male laborer's job. The characteristics of work organization and work rhythm also differed according to the sex to whom jobs were assigned: Muscular exertion was intense but sporadic with the men's jobs, moderate but continuous with the women's. Scientific study has not related characteristics of sex-typed jobs to differences between the sexes in average size and shape. However, analysis of two cases showed that average-sized women entering traditional men's jobs may be disadvantaged, if no thought is given to adjusting tools, equipment and work stations. Trying to do a job designed for larger, heavier people may cause health and safety problems. Any improvement in the conditions of these jobs to take into account a wider range of physical characteristics will benefit men as well as women.

Health problems of women employed in jobs involving psychological and ergonomic stressors: the case of garment workers in Québec.

Abstract: Health problems of women whose jobs involved intense time pressure were evaluated in a study of 800 sewing-machine operators employed in Quebec between 1976 and 1985. Information on workers' occupational characteristics were obtained from public records. Symptoms of anxiety and depression, use of medication and disability status were determined by interview. Garment workers had an increased prevalence of slight, moderate and severe disability and higher levels of symptoms of anxiety and depression when compared to workers in other occupations. Garment workers paid piecework rates took medication for stomach problems in greater proportion than workers paid an hourly wage. Furthermore, workers who spend 5-9, 10-14, 15-19 and 20 or more years in piecework had an increased prevalence of severe disability compared to the baseline category 0-4 years, with adjusted risk ratios of 2.2 (95% CI = 1.14-4.6), 3.3 (95% CI = 1.5-6.9), 3.6 (95% CI = 1.5-8.4 and 2.3 (95% CI = 0.8-6.6) respectively, independent of age, smoking habits, education, type of task and total length of employment. These findings suggest that short-term, non-disabling conditions associated with time pressure by previous authors may have more important long-term sequelae then had been previously documented.

Psychological Morale and Job Satisfaction Among Homecare Workers Who Care for Persons with AIDS

Abstract: This paper reports the findings of a study of 103 home care workers who have cared for PWAs. It investigated degree of "exposure" to AIDS cases, perception of risk of occupational contagion, client/worker relationships, attitudes toward homosexuality and drug abuse and other work related factors for their relationship with psychological morale and job satisfaction. Multivariate analyses found sociodemographic characteristics and physical health to be the strongest predictors of morale. The quality of client/worker relationships and risk perception were the strongest predictors of job satisfaction. These findings, and that of the relative lack of importance of exposure to AIDS cases and attitudes toward the risk groups in accounting for job satisfaction, are discussed in terms of qualitative data collected from respondents during informal small group discussions.

Reducing distress associated with pelvic examinations: a replication.

Abstract: A previous study of the effect of a new examination gown on patients' experienced discomfort during pelvic examination demonstrated that the gown was effective. This study replicated the previous study with a younger group of subjects. It was hypothesized that the new gown would reduce reported distress. Subjects were 147 patients at a university student health center. Age ranged from 18 to 31. Informed consent was obtained and patients were randomly assigned to either the experimental gown or the standard drape condition. Following examination, subjects completed questionnaires assessing demographic characteristics, state and trait anxiety, desired changes in pelvic examination procedures, and reactions to the examination. The attending nurse recorded blood pressure. Results supported the hypotheses. Experimental subjects rated the gown as more comfortable than control subjects rated the drape. Results indicate that this simple stimulus control intervention reduces one source of distress associated with pelvic examinations.

Stability of psychological impairment: two year follow-up of former microelectronics workers' affective and personality disturbance.

Abstract: For the past twenty years women's complaints in the microelectronics industry have often been diagnosed as mass psychogenic illness, despite evidence of potential exposure to organic solvents, which have been associated with affect and mood changes. In the present study, the standard version of the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) was used to evaluate affective and personality disturbance among 63 former microelectronics workers (56 women and 7 men) over a two-year period of time. In both 1986 and 1988, the former workers obtained mean scale score elevations beyond two standard deviations above the normative sample (T = greater than 70) on the MMPI clinical scales of schizophrenia, hypochondriasis, psychasthenia, depression and hysteria. For most scales, 86-88 mean score differences did not attain the 0.05 significance level (two-tailed paired t-test) and no significant differences were observed for 86-88 comparison scale scores = greater than 70 (McNemar paired statistic). Although there were too few men to perform gender comparisons, men scored higher than women on 5 scales and all of the men had scores = greater than 70 on hypochondriasis, depression, hysteria, psychasthenia and schizophrenia. These findings reveal that these former microelectronics workers manifested affective and personality disturbances, consistent with organic solvent toxicity, which persisted over a two year period, indicating that they were not reactive, transient hysterical neurosis.