Showing papers in "World Englishes in 2010"

English in Singapore: culture, capital and identity in linguistic variation

Abstract: Singapore is placed in the Outer Circle of the Kachru's Three Circles Model, and has over the years developed an English which is uniquely Singaporean. This paper argues that in order to understand the ways in which Singapore English is developing its own standards and ways of speaking, a new model needs to be developed that takes culture, capital and identity into consideration. This socio-cultural perspective is one grounded in an understanding of the dualistic role of English in Singapore both as a global language and a local language. It is argued that this duality is consistent with the cultural identity of Singaporeans who negotiate fluidly between two divergent orientations – that of the global citizen and the local Singaporean. The paper explains how a culturally focused model which examines the identities of Singaporean speakers is able to provide a finer-grained and thus more explanatorily adequate account of Singapore English than previously proposed models, in particular, the diglossic analysis.

Achieving Mutual Understanding in World Englishes.

Abstract: Given the rapid growth in international contacts worldwide, English is increasingly becoming the chosen medium to facilitate communication among people of diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. However, the question remains as to how non-native speakers of English of varying levels of proficiency, using different varieties of English, are able to arrive at mutual understanding in this medium. The paper addresses this question by offering some insights into the process of negotiating understanding in English as a lingua franca and the interactional procedures used in this regard. Fifteen hours of transcribed audio recordings of naturally occurring spoken interactions in English as a lingua franca (ELF), between participants of a range of first language and cultural backgrounds, were examined using conversation analytic procedures. Several interactional practices were identified as the ones utilized in the process of constructing shared understanding, namely repetition, paraphrase and various confirmation and clarification procedures. These procedures are strategically employed by both speaker and recipient as warranted by the local context to address problems of understanding when they occur. Thus, regardless of the participants’ use of different varieties of English at varying levels of competency, communication is successful as the participants make skilful and adept use of common, shared interactional practices to arrive at mutual understanding.

Social and linguistic perspectives on variability in world Englishes

Abstract: Linguistic variability is a peripheral concern to many linguistic approaches. This paper argues that much is gained by taking variability seriously. An examination of the views of Trudgill and Schneider leads to a number of insights into new varieties of English, which may have wider implications for a general understanding of variability in language. Trudgill's claim that the stabilisation of colonial varieties of English is achieved deterministically, without the mediating role of social forces is considered, but not accepted. However, Trudgill draws attention to the important influence of the distribution of variants in the input to the eventual outcome. Schneider's model is accepted as far as the social processes are concerned, but has to be supplemented with a more thorough consideration of the input to language contact settings. The examination of the two views lead to two insights into social and psycholinguistic aspects of English language acquisition and the formation of new varieties in Outer Circle contexts. On the social side, learners are exposed to more variability, but simultaneously receive less input. Conventions and stabilisation are therefore likely to take longer. On the psycholinguistic side, learners are cognitively more mature when language acquisition starts, leading to general schemas that are less instance-based than those acquired by young children whose cognitive and linguistic development are aligned. On the basis of a deeper appreciation of variability in new varieties of English, it is concluded that standardisation is unlikely to have a significant effect on new varieties, and that they will develop conventions grounded in actual language use.

Creativity and world Englishes

Abstract: This paper sets out to discuss creativity and world Englishes from a range of perspectives. It begins with a discussion of the changing face of English studies over recent decades, and then proceeds to discuss definitions of 'creativity' and 'bilingual creativity'. In the later sections of the paper, there is discussion of postcolonial literature and world fiction in English, with particular reference to the work of Timothy Mo. Finally, the implications of this discussion for contemporary English studies in Hong Kong are also considered.

Creativity and discourse

Abstract: This paper will consider the relationship between discourse analysis and creativity and elucidate the ways in which a discourse analytical approach to creativity might be distinguished from the ‘language and creativity’ approaches which currently dominate applied linguistics and sociolinguistics. In the ‘discourse and creativity’ approach I will be describing, creativity is located not in language per se, but in the strategic ways people use language in concrete situations in order to stimulate social change. I will explore how aspects of this approach are reflected in work carried out within the paradigm of world Englishes.

English-Language Creative Writing in Mainland China.

Abstract: This paper presents the background, purpose and components of a creative writing course conducted in the Department of English at Sun Yat-sen University as part of the reform in the teaching of English in China. It explains and demonstrates the different components of the course and argues, drawing on evidence from students’ work and reflections, that creative writing motivates students to write, is a good vehicle for improving students’ proficiency in English, and enables them to think critically, and to share their common experiences. Creative writing is presented not just as an effective way to teach English as a second language but also to enhance students’ personal development in general. It is hoped that such a course will eventually make it possible for more Chinese writers to share their unique cultural perspective with a wider audience through the medium of English.

English in Cambodia: changes and challenges

Abstract: This paper reports research undertaken at a prestigious university in Phnom Penh in late 2007. The views of lecturers who teach the BEd (TEFL) degree and their students were canvassed in relation to the status of English in Cambodia. The students completed a questionnaire probing their views on the notion of a Cambodian English, as well as their preferences for learning different varieties of English. The lecturers discussed similar questions to those of the student questionnaires, but with more probing of actual changes in English usage in Cambodia since the country opened up to the outside world in the early 1990s. The analysis suggests some evolution of the status of English from English as a foreign language (EFL) towards English as an international language (EIL) and, surprisingly, to English as a second language (ESL). Challenges of this evolution for teachers in Cambodia are also discussed.

Malaysian English: an instrumental analysis of vowel contrasts

Abstract: This paper makes an instrumental analysis of English vowel monophthongs produced by 47 female Malaysian speakers. The focus is on the distribution of Malaysian English vowels in the vowel space, and the extent to which there is phonetic contrast between traditionally paired vowels. The results indicate that, like neighbouring varieties of English, Malaysian English vowels occupy a smaller vowel space than those of British English. The lack of contrast in vowel quality between vowel pairs was more apparent for /i… /-/ I/, /e/ - /ae/ and /O /-/ A…/. However, there was a considerable difference in duration in the vowel pairs except for /A /-/ O…/ which contrasted in terms of vowel quality.

Chinese Perceptions of Inner Circle Varieties of English.

Abstract: Research from populations around the world on attitudes to varieties of English is essential in order to have a better understanding of how the complexities of globalization play a role in the form of English as a world language. To that end, university students in China were asked to name countries around the world where they believe English is spoken and indicate what kind of impression they have of those varieties without the presentation of voice stimuli. This type of data elicitation enables the participants themselves to provide the researcher with evaluative categories and avoids problems associated with using voice stimuli. The results indicate that the effect of the cultural hegemony of US English as a variety is complex, and that, contrary to assumptions, US English is unlikely to be a model for a ‘standard’ variety of world English in the traditional sense.

Naming and defining in world Englishes

Abstract: This paper offers a taxonomy of the names used within world Englishes studies to refer to the object of investigation at the heart of the discipline. With the emergence of English as a global language, and with the concomitant increase in scholarship that critically studies this emergence, there has been a proliferation of names used to refer to the language, each of which represents a distinct theoretical stance towards the contemporary study of English. This paper analyses the categories used to subdivide the field, considers the functions performed by the distinctions made within this taxonomy, and examines the theoretical motivation behind these acts of naming. In analysing the structure of this taxonomy, the paper considers what this multiplicity of acts of naming suggests both about the current state of the discipline of world Englishes studies, as well as the nature of the entity that it takes as its object of study.

Norms for pronunciation in Southeast Asia

Abstract: Some pronunciation features that are not found in Inner Circle varieties of English are shared by the Englishes of Singapore, the rest of ASEAN, and China, and in some cases they serve to distinguish pairs of words which are no longer differentiated by many speakers in Britain. As these features of pronunciation do not interfere with comprehension and in some cases they actually enhance intelligibility, they can be promoted as part of the standard English that is emerging in Southeast Asia. However, there is likely to be less agreement about some other features, as for example, it may be argued that the relative absence of reduced vowels and the use of syllable-based rhythm do have an impact on intelligibility, so whether these features are encouraged as part of the regional standard English will re- main more controversial. In addition to considering these features, this paper discusses the status of final consonants that are commonly deleted in British and American English, specifically whether the regular omission of these sounds by speakers in Southeast Asia should be encouraged.

Creative multilingualism in Hong Kong popular music

Abstract: In the post-war years, Hong Kong popular music has been characterized by several different configurations of languages. In the 1950s, Mandarin Chinese popular songs, inherited from pre-communist Shanghai, and Cantonese opera were the two main mass-mediated styles. In the 1960s and early 1970s, Mandarin came second to English pop, with Cantonese playing a minor role, while the mid-1970s saw the rise of mass-market Cantonese popular music, known as Cantopop and the demise of English and Mandarin as many established stars switched to Cantonese. Recent scholarship has tended to identify Hong Kong popular music with Cantonese, and to understate the historical roles of English and Mandarin. This paper explores alternative ways of representing the history of Hong Kong popular music that are grounded in the notion of multilingualism, asking whether locally-produced English music can also be “local” through its embedding in the matrix of Hong Kong languages and the hybridity of languages in contact.

The acoustic characteristics of diphthongs in Indian English

Abstract: This paper presents the results of an acoustic analysis of English diphthongs produced by three L1 speakers of Hindi and four L1 speakers of Punjabi. Formant trajectories of rising and falling diphthongs (i.e., vowels where there is a clear rising or falling trajectory through the F1/F2 vowel space) were analysed in a corpus of citation-form words. In line with previous research, the diphthong inventory included six different diphthongs and a long monophthongal vowel [OI] in place of/partial derivative U/in GOAT; however, none of the speakers produced a full set of diphthong vowels. In addition, the/eI/diphthong, as in FACE, and the/U partial derivative/diphthong, as in TOUR, had both monophthongal and diphthongal realizations depending on the speaker. Overall, there was a great deal of variation in diphthong realization across the corpus but L1 appeared to be a relevant factor. Punjabi speakers showed a wider range of phonetic realizations for some of the vowels, and were more likely to produce long monophthongs rather than diphthongs. The results also highlight differences in the phonetic characteristics of several diphthongs between the speakers of two language backgrounds. The results of this study therefore contribute to the debate on the phonemic representation of IE vowels by taking into account different L1 influence (i.e., Hindi or Punjabi).

Current research on Englishes in Southeast Asia

Abstract: Much research on world Englishes (WE) since the 1980s has yet to impact significantly upon recent applied linguistics work in the areas of instruction, curriculum, testing and policy. Much of the received wisdom has been informed by the paradigm established by the earlier study of International English (IE) and its attendant foci in teaching English to speakers of other languages. However, with the emergence of WE as an increasingly recognizable and legitimate discipline in its own right, scholars in Southeast Asia are now paying attention to the research implications of a shift in paradigm and are investigating features associated with new Englishes, analysing mutual intelligibility and communication in English among Association of Southeast Asian Nations users, and establishing genre-based analyses. This paper has a dual focus: the first is to survey current approaches to research on Southeast Asian Englishes, and to discuss the relevance of a world Englishes approach to scholarship in this area. The second part of this paper introduces the papers in this special issue which offer topics relating to Southeast Asia and beyond.

The Idea of English in Japan: Ideology and the Evolution of a Global Language by Philip Seargeant

Abstract: Providing an ontology of the English language and how it is conceptualized in a foreign country is an ambitious undertaking; however Philip Seargeant, with his volume The Idea of English in Japan: Ideology and the Evolution of a Global Language, provides a compact, anthropological investigation of this issue through a careful selection of case studies as well as thought-provoking analysis. It is a study particularly refreshing to see, as Japan is still fairly underrepresented in world Englishes literature. For sociolinguists and Japanologists alike, this book is a welcome addition to the current literature on language and society in Japan. It assertively questions how linguistic ideologies are reproduced and the implications these ideologies have on how English is viewed globally. The book is essentially comprised of several articles that Seargeant had previously written about Japan, globalization and the ideology of English. The theoretical and methodological frameworks in this volume are detailed in the Introduction (pp. 3–5), ch. 2, “The Concept of English as a global language” (pp. 6–21) and ch. 3 “Language ideology and global English” (pp. 22–42). In ch. 2, after he commences his introduction with the proposition that “language exists not only as a medium but also as a concept” (p. 1, italics mine), he carefully reviews two prominent schools of thought in world Englishes, which pit Quirk’s monocentrist orientations towards a universal English language against Kachru’s more pluricentric, nuanced outlook that appreciates linguistic variety. Seargeant deftly employs this debate as a springboard for his intentions to determine the ramifications that “contextspecific conceptualizations” (p. 20), like Japan has for the development of a theoretical approach. In ch. 3, Seargeant presents his choice of a qualitative, language ideologies framework in order to investigate how English is positioned within Japanese society, and what assumptions about the language can be gleaned from this positioning. He does this through semiosis, by analysing written and visual texts, as well as conducting small-scale interviews, though he concedes in a later chapter that he tends to draw predominantly from written text about English produced in the English language rather than in Japanese. Chapter 4, “English in Japan: The current shape of the debate” (pp. 43–62) and ch. 5, “Globalization: Enriching Japanese culture through contact with other cultures” (pp. 63– 86), begin the conceptual case studies that first delve into the issue of language-in-education policy. In his thoughtful critique of the ‘determinism’ that tends to be a feature of English language teaching and research in Japan, he interrogates the seemingly dubious positions taken by the Japanese ministry of education with respect to the English language as a tool for communication, highlighting that ‘communication’ in Japan and the West may be quite different concepts. The subsequent chapter approaches the issue of how globalization in

Research methods and intelligibility studies

Abstract: This paper first briefly reviews the concept of intelligibility as it has been employed in both English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) and world Englishes (WE) research. It then examines the findings of the Lingua Franca Core (LFC), a list of phonological features that empirical research has shown to be important for safeguarding mutual intelligibility between non-native speakers of English. The main point of the paper is to analyse these findings and demonstrate that many of them can be explained if three perspectives (linguistic, psycholinguistic and historical-variationist) are taken. This demonstration aims to increase the explanatory power of the concept of intelligibility by providing some theoretical background. An implication for ELF research is that at the phonological level, internationally intelligible speakers have a large number of features in common, regardless of whether they are non-native speakers or native speakers. An implication for WE research is that taking a variety-based, rather than a features-based, view of phonological variation and its connection with intelligibility is likely to be unhelpful, as intelligibility depends to some extent on the phonological features of individual speakers, rather than on the varieties per se.

Hybrid Compounding in New Zealand English.

Abstract: This study investigates hybrid compound formation of Maori and English terms in present day New Zealand English (NZE). On the background of Maori and English language contact, the phenomenon of hybrid compounding emerges as a process that, on the one hand, symbolizes the vitality of the Maori element in NZE and, on the other hand, marks the integration of Maori concepts in New Zealand culture. The investigation is based on a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the most frequent Maori loans in hybrid compounds drawn from a popular New Zealand newspaper (The New Zealand Herald). While the quantitative part establishes the total number of Maori loans, their usage in hybrid compounds, and their individual productivity values, the qualitative investigation disentangles semantic referential patterns underlying the formation of hybrid compounds. This approach to analysing hybrid compounds unveils a series of referential clusters that emerge from the semantic frame of the Maori borrowings and that allow for a conceptual categorization of the hybrid compounds.

Linguistically Privileged and Cursed? American University Students and the Global Hegemony of English.

Abstract: This paper analyzes written discourse generated in response to an open-ended questionnaire administered to 136 students at two different universities in the southwestern United States and to 15 non-American students at a large Danish university. The questionnaire aimed to inspire reflection about the impact of the global rise of English on American mother-tongue speakers of English as well as on those who do not have English as a mother tongue, especially with respect to the question of mono vs. multilingual practice. Most American and non-American respondents represented the learning of a foreign language as something American mother-tongue speakers should do but as something which is not necessary. There was widespread, though not unanimous, agreement that English is necessary for non-mother-tongue speakers. Responses are also grouped, discussed, and analyzed in terms of the instrumental, multicultural, or mix of multicultural and instrumental logic used. The author is especially concerned with the intersections between the global hegemony of English and the learning of foreign languages. The study and analysis conducted here offer insight into these intersections. Given that so much is at stake in terms of the relationship between the global expansion of English and foreign language learning, the author concludes that further research into this relationship is needed.

The acoustic reality of the Kachruvian circles: a rhythmic perspective

Abstract: This paper investigates whether the rhythmic properties of varieties of English found in each of the concentric circles of Kachru's model can, in any way, be elucidated by the ‘Three Circles’ model A measurement and comparison of the rhythm of three varieties of English: British English (from the Inner Circle), Singapore English (from the Outer Circle) and Mainland Chinese English (from the Expanding Circle) is done from recordings made of one subject from each variety reading The North Wind and the Sun passage Measurements are made of successive vowel durations and the pairwise variability index (PVI) developed by Low, Grabe, and Nolan is calculated in an attempt to capture the rhythmic properties of the three varieties The PVI has been shown to effectively capture the broad rhythmic typology between stress-based and syllable-based varieties of English In particular, this paper examines whether it is the case that Mainland Chinese English (a norm-dependent variety) differs significantly in the rhythmic domain from Singapore English (a norm-developing variety) and be proven to be statistically similar to British English (a norm-providing variety)

Creativity in Hong Kong schools

Abstract: This paper examines discourses of creativity in English-language education in post-colonial Hong Kong, where educational reform has mandated a change from transmissive to interactive modes of teaching and learning and a shift towards more creative methods of teaching English. The literature is reviewed with regard to discourses of creativity both internationally and in the Hong Kong context. An ethnographic study of an innovative project in a Hong Kong secondary school, using poetry and creative writing in the language classroom, is presented. Findings from this study, carried out between 1999 and 2001, illustrate how pedagogical discourses of creativity – such as creative tasks, the creative process and communities of practice – are more significant at classroom level than simple East-West dichotomies, and how such discourses can be productive both for teachers and students despite institutional and social constraints.

The particle ya in Colloquial Singapore English

Abstract: It has been recently argued that the particles in Colloquial Singapore English (CSE) constitute a grammatical category that actively draws new members to it. Drawing on distributional and collocational evidence, this paper establishes that CSE has a new particle, ya. The paper then proceeds to analyse the discourse pragmatic function of the particle. It shows that a speaker uses the particle ya to (weakly) boost the illocutionary force of a statement, and to also signal that this is a statement that the speaker considers to be uncontroversial in nature. The paper then closes by discussing some observations – from the perspective of grammaticalization and sociolinguistic studies – that are consistent with the relative newness of this particle. Regarding grammaticalization, the paper shows that the particle ya is actually more grammaticalized than affirmative yes/ya. It is by comparison more expressive of the speaker's belief-state or attitude. Regarding sociolinguistics, the paper observes that users of the particle ya seem to be mainly females who are in their late thirties or younger.

Brunei English: A Developing Variety.

Abstract: A considerable amount of time has elapsed since the existence of a distinct variety of English, Brunei English (BNE), was mooted in the early 1990s. A subsequent study conducted by Svalberg in 1998 suggested that BNE was then in its infancy and that its speakers were largely unaware of the differences between it and Standard British English (STE). However, it was predicted that BNE would, in all likelihood, expand and stabilise over time. This paper seeks to explore how BNE has evolved and is developing in a contemporary context. An adapted and extended version of Svalberg's original grammaticality judgement test was given to a class of 29 Lower Sixth Form students aged 16–17 at DPMAMB College. The participants involved had relatively high proficiency levels in STE, having all achieved credit grades in the Brunei-Cambridge GCE O Level English Language examination the previous year. The original test had focused solely on the grammatical acceptability of featured items. In extending it I added a number of lexical items commonly heard in everyday conversations and exchanges and some that emerge consistently in both student and public texts. It was considered that having participants assess both lexicality and grammaticality would yield a wider-ranging picture of the forms and functions characteristic of BNE today and a greater illumination of its role in meeting the expressive needs of Bruneians.

Right in Singapore English

Abstract: Singapore English has been, and still is, an enigma for many scholars and researchers. In recent years, much attention has been given to the analysis of its particles. However, rather than focusing on the analysis of one particle or several particles and how they operate at the level of the sentence, this paper looks at a particular phenomenon in Singapore English at a discursive level. Specifically, it examines right and its use as a discourse marker in Singapore English interactions. In doing so, this paper demonstrates how it contributes to the alignment of two kinds of stances between speakers, namely, the epistemic stance and the interpersonal stance. This is done with supporting data from naturally occurring Singaporean conversations. Furthermore, this paper also briefly suggests that the familiar particles in Singapore English can be analysed not only as particles, but also as discourse markers at an interactional level.

Asian linkages in children's writing and writing for children

Abstract: Reflecting on the influence of English nursery rhyme poems on one individual Asian child's language development, the paper reviews current studies on the socio-cultural dynamics of creativity, to examine how these theoretical and empirical investigations may help shape specific pedagogical practices in the expressive language arts in a Hong Kong context where English is not the first language, with particular reference to some Hong Kong young students’ responses to these creative writing classroom strategies.

Creativity in recent educational discourse in England

Abstract: This paper offers an analysis of creativity in educational discourse in England over the Labour government's three terms in office. It traces the changing definitions and uses of the term in relation to agendas about raising standards in schools, promoting the arts and cultural education, and developing entrepreneurialism. In particular, it offers an analysis of the ways that these changing definitions influenced the Creative Partnerships programme, a national initiative to encourage schools in England to work in partnership with the creative sector.

Print advertisements in Malaysia

Abstract: This paper examines print advertisements in Malaysia to determine how advertisers seek to achieve their primary goal of persuading or influencing an audience by the use of both language and visuals. It describes the main component moves and rhetorical strategies used by writers to articulate the communicative purpose of the genre and the language in the advertisements. A descriptive framework for multi-modal texts is adopted for analysing the visuals. How the advertisements encode national identity and cultural values, and illustrate innovative language use is shown. The findings illustrate the multilayered and competing values from various sources in the Malaysian society and reinforce the traditional as well as the new values based on national, global or commercial priorities.

Word stress in Cameroon and Nigerian Englishes

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to study the strategies used by Cameroonians and Nigerians to cope with the notorious complexity of English word stress. Stress placement is similar among these two groups, but differs significantly from what obtains in traditional native English speech, received pronunciation (RP), for example. Some of the stress placement strategies used by Cameroonians and Nigerians, for some words, are the same as those used by RP speakers, while others are parallel and/or completely innovative. In fact, the strategies can be seen as the speakers’ behaviour with regard to a number of internalized rules or constraints. The constraints identified include the backward stress (BWS) and antepenultimate stress (APS) constraints, the reverse forward stress constraint (FWS) more characteristic of CamE/NigE, noun-verb alternation (NVA), final obstruent verbal stress (FOVS), affix stress property (ASP), and many more. For example, in CamE/NigE, the observance of BWS and APS accounts for the stress pattern of ?assassin, ?lieutenant, ?opponent, ?umbrella; the observance of FWS accounts for car?ton, mat?tress, sa?lad, pet?ty; NVA accounts for ?applause, ?extent, ?success; FOVS accounts for embar?rass, inter?pret, (verb) kid?nap; the observance of ASP (which RP violates in this particular case) accounts for spi?ritual. In fact, the paper shows that, in a large number of words, (CamE/NigE) stress placement results from competition between several constraints, in which the winning constraint is often different from what obtains in RP. The approach used in the analyses is eclectic, but draws substantially on generative phonology and somewhat on optimality theory.

A features-based approach for teaching Singapore English

Abstract: Research into Singapore English (SgE) has undergone many paradigm shifts from the 1970s to the present. This paper first begins with a consideration of how variation in the English language used in Singapore has been studied. It then identifies the two main varieties of English commonly described in Singapore, namely, Standard SgE (SSE) and Singapore Colloquial English (SCE). The existence of these two varieties poses problems in language teaching as student teachers are not always confident in their own use and when to execute the two varieties appropriately and they may also lack the linguistic tools to help them distinguish between the two varieties. This paper examines the level of effectiveness of a particular course known as ‘Features of SgE’ has in introducing and helping undergraduate student teachers to distinguish between standard and non-standard features of SgE. Consequently, the features that need to be addressed in the classroom are identified. The results of a questionnaire administered at the start of the course and again at the end of the course designed to test students’ knowledge of the differences between SSE and SCE are analysed. Finally, the main findings from the course feedback are discussed in order to ascertain whether the course has been effective in fulfilling its objectives.

Cameroonian and Foreign Scholars' Discourse: The Rhetoric of Conference Abstracts

Abstract: This contribution explores rhetorical features in 207 abstracts submitted for four international conferences in Yaounde (Cameroon), Regensburg (Germany) and Birmingham (UK). Relevant text features are retrieved from the corpus via concordance software and results are discussed in the light of their frequency of occurrence. Furthermore, the abstracts are manually scanned to determine recurrent schematic patterns. Findings show that rhetorical choices and recurrent “moves” in the abstracts submitted for the Regensburg-Birmingham conferences are more attuned to the expectations of community discourse practices than those of the Yaounde-Cameroon conferences.