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during the manufacturing process. The data contains valuable
information about the state of the system and its potential
faults. In such systems, the available automated solutions to
assist engineers with fault detection are limited and only
consider one measured characteristic of a manufacturing
process at a time. This creates a simplified static image of a
complex dynamic system. State of the art tools can consider
multiple characteristics but disregard the temporal aspect of
the signal, creating a static model of the system. More
significantly, these tools ignore various correlations between
multiple characteristics, which dynamically change over time
and provide additional information about a fault occurrence.
Another problem is the limited automation of the fault
classification and inference, making it necessary to train staff
/ engineers to use the tools effectively. This results in
additional cost and places constraints on the flexible use of
human resources. Likewise, these methods cannot detect
faults at an early stage, respond to constantly changing fault
sources or learn new fault types from multi-type spatial-
temporal production data. Ignoring the above problems leads
to extensive production down-time and waste of resources,
unsafe machinery, poor production yield and suboptimal
human resource allocation.
The rest of the paper is organised as follows. Section II
provides an overview of existing FDI methods used in
manufacturing environment. Section III discusses the
proposed approach. Section IV discusses the implementation
and Section V describes the evaluation of the proposed
approach in a real-world setting. Finally, in Section VI
conclusions and future work are discussed.
II. EXISTING FAULT DETECTION METHODS
The importance of using FDI has been first recognised in
safety critical areas such as flight control, railways, medicine,
nuclear-plants and many more. The need for fault detection is
also more relevant nowadays due to the new application of
computational intelligence for data analysis performed by
real-time systems. This is especially true in real-time energy
efficient management of distributed resources [7], real-time
control and mobile crowdsensing [8] (both a vital part of
smart and connected communities) and the protection of
sensitive information collected by wearable sensors [9].
A conventional method for ensuring the fault free
operation of manufacturing production lines is to periodically
check the process variables, which include software
configuration validation, sensor validation, measurement
device calibration and preventive maintenance [10]. This
method is widely popularised in industry and used for
preventing and detecting abrupt failures. However, it is not
able to detect failures that can only be detected by continuous
assessment of variables, such as incipient process faults,
which are especially relevant in the manufacture of
microelectronic components. Owing to an increase in the
process complexity and sophistication of production
equipment, this method is no longer cost effective and
impractical to implement on large scale computer-based
production lines [11].
Fault detection methods can be mostly categorised into two
main groups: hardware redundancy and analytical
redundancy [12]. The main idea behind redundancy-based
methods is to generate a residual signal which represents a
difference between the normal behaviour of a system and its
actual measured behaviour. By considering this comparison,
a fault occurrence can be detected. Hardware redundancy is
based on creating the residual signal by using hardware [13].
The general idea behind this approach is to measure a given
process variable with more than one sensor and detect a fault
by performing consistency checks on the different sensors.
Analytical redundancy is based on creating the residual
signal from a mathematical model which can be developed by
analysing either the actual measurements, or the underlying
physics of the process. There are three main approaches to
analytical redundancy: model-based methods, data driven
methods, and knowledge based expert systems [14]. They are
all categorised based on a priori knowledge, which is
required for the model. Model based methods require a good
mathematical model of the monitored system which can be
acquired using parameter estimators, parity relations or state
observers such as Luenberger observers and Kalman Filters
[12]. Data driven methods, instead of creating a mathematical
model, use historical data recorded by sensors to monitor a
given system. The data is used to describe and model the
normal behaviour of that system, which is subsequently used
to generate a residual signal. The data driven methods can be
used only if the given system can generate enough data from
the sensors [15]. Finally, a knowledge based expert system
uses domain knowledge which is very often described as a set
of rules [16].
A different approach for the classification of fault detection
methods is to consider the different methods from the
perspective of the variables that are used to detect a fault
[17]. In this context, methods based on analysing single
signals or multiple signals and models can be considered. The
single signal methods consider one process variable in
isolation from other variables. They include methods based
on limit and trend checking such as fixed threshold, adaptive
threshold or change detection methods [17]. Thresholds are
set to detect whether a given characteristic of the system falls
outside the acceptable minimal and maximal values. This
method, whilst simple and reliable is slow to react to changes
in the value of a characteristic over time and is incapable of
identifying complex failures. To overcome this problem a set
of methods used to analyse multiple signals have been used.
Those are: principle component analysis (PCA), parameter
estimators, artificial neural networks, state observers, parity
equations and state estimators [15]. These methods identify
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