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Quality( education( and( the( role( of( the( teacher( in( Fiji:( mobilising( global( and(
local(values(
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Michael"Crossley
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,"Cresantia"Frances"Koya"Vaka’uta
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,"Rosiana"Lagi
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,"Simon"McGrath
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,"Konai"
Helu"Thaman
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,"Ledua"Waqailiti
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University"of"Bristol,"
b"
University"of"the"South"Pacific,"
c"
University"of"Nottingham"
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Quality( education( and( the( role( of( the( teacher( in( Fiji:( mobilising( global( and(
local(values(
"
Abstract(
This% article% reports%on%the%findings%of%original%field%research%carried%out%in%the%small%island%
developing% state% of% Fiji,% in% the% South% Pacific.% A% North-South% research% partnership% was% built%
upon% previous% collaboration% between% team% members% and,% in% so% doing,% pioneered% the%
blending%of%Pacific%and%Western%research%approaches%sensitive%to%a%postcolonial%positioning.%
The%study%interrogates%practitioner% perspectives% on% the% nature%and%quality%of% teachers% and%
teaching%in%Fiji;%the%challenges%of%teachers’%work%and%li ves;%priorities%for%successful%qualitative%
reform;% and% theoretical% implications% for% the% processes% of% education% policy% transfer% and%
qualitative% improvement.% The% analysis% draws% upon% work% on% the% politics% of% aid% and%
international% development,% revealing% tensions% between% existing% learner-centred% policy%
frameworks% and% emergent% neoliberal% and% performativity% oriented% initiatives% influenced% by%
international% surveys% of% student% achievement,% related% league% tables% an d% the% experience% of%
the%regional%reference%societies%of%Australia,%New%Zealand%and%India.(
Key(Words(
Small"Island"Developing"States"(SIDS);"teachers"and" teaching;" quality" education;" education"
policy"transfer;"research"partnerships;"Pacific"values"and"methodologies."
(
Introduction(
Globally,"attention"in"the"field"of"education "and"development"is"increasingly"being"focused"
on" the" challenge" of" meeting" the" new" education" targets" enshrined" in" the" United" Nations"
(UN)"Sustainab le"Development"Goal"4"(UN,"2015)."In"the"run-up"to,"and"aftermath"of,"SDG4"
being" developed" alongside" the" Incheon" Agenda" 2030" for" Education" (UNESCO," 2015)," the"
international"debate"has"shifted"to"an"emphasis"on"the"importance"of"qual ity"learning"and"
learning"outcomes,"something"that"had"been"stressed"at"Jomtien"in"1990"but"neglected"until"
recent" times." While" there" continues" to" be" a" right-wing" attack" on" teachers" as" obstacles" to"
improvement"(e.g.,"Moe,"2012)"and"a"continued"faith"in"technological"solutions"that"can"by-
pass"them"(e.g.,"Negroponte,"2006),"there"has"also"been"a"renewed"policy"emphasis"on"the"
central" role" that" teachers" play" in" the" achievement" of" quality" education." A" new" wave" of"
related" OECD-based" literature" (e.g.," McKinsey," 2007)" has" been" supplemented" by" the"
focusing"of"UNESCO’s"2014"Global"Monitoring"Report"on"teaching"and"learning"–"including"a"
major" emphasis" on" teachers’" recruitment," remuneration" and" retention" (UNESCO-GMR,"
2014);" and" the" UN" Secretary-General’s" reaffirmation" at" the" laun ch" of" the" UN" Global"
Initiative" on" Education" in" September" 2012" of" his" belief" in" the" centrality" of" teachers" to"
educational"improvement"(Moon,"2012)."This"process"has"led"to"a"commitment"in"SDG4c"to:""
By" 2030," substantially" increase" the" supp ly" of" qualified" teachers," including"
through"international"cooperation"for"teacher"training"in"developing"countries,"
especially" least" developed" countries" and" small" island" d evelopin g" states." (UN,"
2015,"p."17)"
For"this"article,"the"explicit"mention"o f"small"island"development"states"(SIDS)"is"particularly"
pertinent,"as"we"are"interested"in"the"case"of"Fiji"-"a"group" of"islands "with"a"population"of"
3"
"
less"than"a"million"people"located"in"one"of"the"least"well" d ocumented" regions"of"the"world"–"
the"South" Pacific"(Sharma"et"al.,"2015)."The"global"concerns"about"quality"and"the"role" of "the"
teacher" that" are" noted" above" are" also" manifest" in" Pacific" Island" Countries" (PICs)," wh ere"
longstanding" problems" include" low" quality" education" and" teachers" as" well" as" continued"
evidence"of"the"poor"levels"of"literacy,"numeracy"and"life-skills"of"school"leavers"(PIFS,"2009,"
2011," 2012)." Indeed," it" may" be" argued" that" such" issues" have" received" relatively" advanced"
attention"in"the" Pacific"Islands"due" to"the"region’s"high"levels"of"achievement,"in"common"
with"other"SIDS,"in"terms"of"the"access"criteria"that"have"do minated" the" Education" for" All"
(EFA)"era"and"the" educatio n"Millennium"Development"Goals"(MDGs)."Thus,"we"maintain"that"
there"is"considerable" potential" for" the" global" debate" to" be" informed" by" experience" in" this"
distinctive" region" (Crossley" et" al .," 2011)," despite" the" fact" that" the" direction" of" influential"
policy"travel"appears"to"be"entirely"in"the"opposite"direction."
Globally,"one" well-trodden"path"emerging"from"this"renewed"concern"about"the"quality"of"
teachers"and"teaching"is"to"target"teacher"education."This"takes"multiple"forms:"the"reform"
of"teacher"education"institutions;"the"upgrading"of"programmes"and"qualifications;"changes"
in"the"length"and"nature"of"the"practicum;"the"development"of"new"competency"standards"
for" beginning" teachers;" and/or" better" continuous" professional" development" for" practising"
teachers" and " school" administrators." In" the" Pacific" Islands," such" initiatives" have" also" been"
prioritised" and" there" has" been" considerable" inno vation" around" the" uses" of" distance" and"
flexible"learning"in"teacher"education"and"development"(West"an d"Daniel,"2009;"Lingam"et"
al.," 2015)." Practitioner" challenges" to" international" discourses" promoting" increased" teacher"
accountability,"and"policy"trajectories"favouring"conceptions"of"quality"educati on"driven"by"
tests"and"assessment"results,"however,"are"also"evident"throughout"the"Pacific,"based"upo n"
a"mixture"of" informed" local"critique"and"the" emergence" of"professional"resistance"to" such"
initiatives."This"is"the"contested"nature"of"this"distinctive"an d"challenging"small"state"policy"
context,"and"it"is"these"tensions"that"underpin"and"help"frame"much"of"the"research"design"
and"analysis.""
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Research(Rationale(and(Design(
In"the"light"of" the" above"issues"and"glob al" trends," the"research"reported"h ere" was" carried"
out"between"2014"and"2016"and"was"jointly"funded" by"The"British" Academy"(BA)"and" The"
University"of"the"South"Pacific"(USP)."In"framing"the"study,"priority"was"given"to"establishing"
a"sustainable"international"research"partnership"-"jointly"led"by"colleagues"in"Fiji"and"the"UK"
who" had" already" engaged" in" successful" and" long" term" collaboration." While" a" theoretically"
informed"and"critical"analysis"of"this" North–So uth "research"partnership"will"be"the"subject"of"
a" subsequent" publication," and" a" later" section" here" will" provide" details" of" the" distinctive"
research"methodology"and"methods,"it"is"pertinent"here"to"note"that"from"the"outset"the"
team"shared"in"the"development"of"all"dimensions"of"the"research"design."Fijian"colleagues,"
including"academics,"teacher"educators,"and"practising"teachers"(see"Appendix"1),"then"led"
the" local" fieldwork," and" the" UK" partners" led" in" connecting" the" joint" analysis" to" the"
international"theoretical"literature"and"to"the"contemporary"challenges"generated"by"what"
we" see" as" increasingly" powerful" drivers" of" global" education" policy" transfer." The" overall"
storyline" for" this" article" and" a" division" of" labour" in" writing" it" across" all" of" the" team" were"
agreed" at" a" workshop" at" USP." Members" of" the" team" from" each" of" the" partners" then"
presented"a"first"version"of"the"paper"jointly"at"the"BAICE"2016"co nference"and"then"had"a"
further"workshop"to"plan"revisions"based"o n"conference"feedback."Parenthetically,"the"use"
4"
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of" project" funding" to" ensure" space" for" collaborative" writing" appears" to" offer" important"
advantages"in"moving"towards"shared"ownership"of"authorship."
However,"although"the"research"engages" with" the" global" values," strategies"and"challenges"
faced" in" improving" educational" quality," and" the" opportunities" to" support" teacher"
professional" development" in" the" pursuit" of" this" goal," we" argue" that" thi s" has" to" be"
understood"with"reference"to"a"further"analysis"of"the"distinctive"socio-cultural"dynamics"as"
experienced" in" the" S outh " Pacific" and" Fijian" contexts" (see" the" more" generic" arguments"
developed"i n"Crossley"and"Watson,"2003)."Thus,"our"initial"research" q uestio n"was"developed"
within"a"socio-cultural"framework"to"examine:""
How"are"issues"of"teacher"becoming,"being"and"belonging"understood"in"Fiji"
by" different" stakeholders" …" and" what" implications" does" this" have" for" the"
drive"to"improve"the"quality"of"teaching"and"learning?""
This"further"suggested"that"we"must"also"pay"detailed"attention"to:"the"nature"of"teachers’"
work"and"lives;"how"this"is"shaped"by"a"diversity"of"local"and "professional"cultures;"gender"
discourses"and"practices;"the"ways" in"which"change" relates"to"broader" educational"system"
dynamics;"the"nature"of"teacher"education;"and"finally,"how"this"all"interacts"with"the"wider"
political"economy"of"development"and"global"policy"trajectories."As"the"project"developed,"it"
became" increasingly" clear" that" tension" between" multiple" versions" of" local" and" global"
education"were"at"the"heart"of" the"ongoing"debate" about"quality"learning"and" teaching"in"
Fiji."This"also"strengthened"the"rational"for"our"engagement"with"postcolonial"perspectives"
and"sensitivities"that"have"pertinent"strengths"in"revealing"the"political"dynamics"and"power"
differentials"at"play"in"educational"reform."
In" what" follows," we" firstly" examine" some" of" the" most" pertinent" theoretical" literature" that"
can"be" brought" to" bear" on" these" issues," and" provide" a" b rief" analysis"of" the" changing," and"
widely" contested," Fijian" education" policy" context" (Thaman," 2004;" Koya," 2015)." This" is"
followed" by" a" discussion" of" the" innovative" methodological" positioning" that" we" have"
developed" in" blending" Pacific" and" Western" research" approaches." We" then" present" the"
findings" from" our" original" Fijian" fieldwork" data" and" analysis" around" four" core" themes:"
understanding"the"nature"and"quality"of"Fijian"education;"the"challenges"of"teachers’"work"
and"lives;"policy"priorities"for"the"successful"implementation"of"reform;"and"implications"for"
policy"transfer"and"th e"interplay"of"global"and"local"values"in"future"practice."We"conclude"
by"examining"the"implications"for"the"related"theoretical"literature,"and"by"considering"how"
this" Fijian," small" state," research" may" contribute" to" enhanced" understanding" of" the" role" of"
the"teacher"in"programmes"designed"to"improve"the"quality"of"sustai nabl e"and"contextually"
relevant"teaching"and"learning"worldwide."
"
Theoretical(Perspectives(and(their(Implications((
A" current" and" growing" dimension" of" the" i nternation al" debate" about" post-2015" education"
and" development" is" the" extent" to" which" a" focus" on" global" goals" and" the" results" of"
international"surveys,"league"tables"and"trends" can"lead"to"overly"simplistic"education"policy"
transfer" that" underestimates" the" significance" of" local" contextual" factors" and" thereby"
reduces" the" chances" of" successful" implementation" in" practice." In" the" light" of" this," our"
theoretical" approach" to" educational" reform" is" grounded" in" a" resurgent" body" of" work" on"
policy" transfer" and" borrowing" in" education" (e.g.," Steiner-Khamsi" and" Waldow," 2012;" Auld"
5"
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and" Morris," 2014)," and" our" own" core" argument" that" emphasises" how" “context" matters”"
more"than" many"policy"makers"and"researchers"realise"(Crossley,"2010)."As"already"noted,"
this"is"particularly"significant"in"the"Pacific"region"where"PICs"have"suffered"an"almost"total"
marginalisation"from"international"policy"debates.""
On"a"more"specific"level"we"go"beyond"the"results"of"the"PISA"surveys"(cf."OECD,"2010)"and"
their"implications"for"appropriate"pedagogies,"learning"technologies"and"teaching"standards,"
to"look"for"local"possibilities"for"improvement"in"teaching"and"learning"quality."This"is"not"to"
oppose"arguments"that"teachers’"performance"could"and"should"improve,"but"to"both"note"
the" problematic" nature" of" external" agendas" of" performativity" and" to" insist" that" improved"
performance"must"build"on"what"is"feasible"in"light"of"the"structural"constraints"of"teachers’"
work"and"lives"(Day"and"Gu,"2010;"Buckler,"2011"and"2015)."
Indeed," there" is" also" an" increasingly" visible" literature" in" developing" country" contexts" that"
shows"how"internationally"inspired"or"driven"teacher"education"initiatives"often"fail"due"to"
their"misarticulation"with" the"realities"of" the"schools,"educational" systems"and"societies" in"
which" teachers" work" and" live" (e.g.," Saito," Tsukui " and" Tanaka," 2008;" Schweisfurth," 2011)."
Moreover,"in"the"Pacific"Islands,"educational"reform"has"long"tended"to"neglect"the"views"of"
practising"teachers,"contributing"to"a"disconnection" between"policies"and" implementation,"
and" undermining" sustainable" educational" reform" at" the" classroom" level" (Crossley" and"
Vulliamy," 1984;" Thaman," 2004," 2007" and" 2008)." This" is" behind" our" interest" in" local"
imaginaries"of"what"defines"the"“ideal”"teacher"(Koya,"2012)."
The" multi-level" research" reported" here" thus" considers" the" micro-level," lived" experience" of"
practitioners" and" meso-level" concerns" deali ng" with " edu cation al" structures" -" " alongside" an"
understanding"of"the"macro-level"effects"of"poli cy"transfer"and"uneven"global"development."
These" macro-level" effects" include" the" impact" and" politics" of" aid" dominance" (McGrath" and"
Badroodien," 2006;" Cassity," 2008;" Ruru," 2010)," and" the" effects" of" globalisation" and"
postcoloniality"(Thaman,"2004;"Crossley"and"Tikly,"2004;"Nabobo-Baba,"2006a"and"2008),"in"
addition" to " previously" noted" work" on" policy" borrowing" and" uncritical" international" policy"
transfer" (Crossley" and" Watson," 2003;" McGrath," 2010;" Crossley" and" Watson," 2011;"
Tuinamuana," 2002"and"2007)."Finally,"locating"this"form"of"analysis"within"the"context"of"th e"
Pacific" Islands," and" the" wider" experience" of" SIDS," further" strengthens" the" potential" and"
originality"of"this"contribution"to"th e"existing"international"literature"that"has"tended"to"be"
concentrated"on"research"in"larger"countries.""
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The(Changing(Fijian(Education(Policy(Context((
Fiji"is"a"small"Pacific"island"nation" comprised" of" over"300"islands"with" a"population" of" just"
under"a"million"people,"sitting"at"837,271"in"2007"(Fiji"Bureau"of"Statistics,"2016)."The"island"
nation"was"a"colony"of"Great"Britain"for"almost"a"hundred"years,"gaining"its"independence"in"
1970." During" the" colonial" era," Fiji" adopted" the" British" system" of" education" and" while"
independence"promised"self-direction"in"education,"most"of"the"colonial"policies,"practices"
and"structures"remained"in"place"for"many"years."In"the"early"post-independent"system,"an"
arrangement" was" established" which" saw" the" use" of" New" Zealand" curriculum" content,"
textbooks" and" national" examinations." This" arrangement" ceased" in" the" 1990s" when" locally"
developed"national"curriculum"and"examinations"were"introduced"in"Fiji"schools.""