Quartz crystal resonators and oscillators for frequency control and timing applications: A tutorial, revision 6.1

TLDR: In this article, the most frequently encountered concepts in frequency control and timing are presented to the nonspecialist, including aging, short-term instability, frequency vs. drive level effects, acceleration effects, the effect of shock, and radiation effects.

Abstract: : Subjects covered include: applications of frequency standards; types of oscillators (quartz and atomic); quartz resonator properties; quartz growing, sweeping, and material characteristics; Q and its significance; resonator and oscillator stability, including aging, short-term instability, frequency vs. temperature characteristics, oscillator circuit caused instabilities, frequency vs. drive level effects, acceleration effects, the effect of shock, and radiation effects; emerging technologies; atomic frequency standards; comparison of the major oscillator types; oscillator specifications and selection guidelines; time and timekeeping; clock errors; relativistic time; time transfer; time and frequency subsystem; and other applications of quartz resonators. The goal of this document is to assist in presenting to the nonspecialist the most frequently encountered concepts in frequency control and timing. The document originated as a set of hard copies of presentation visual graphs(i.e., vugraphs).... Quartz, Quartz crystal, Quartz resonator, Quartz oscillator, Resonator, Oscillator, Stability, Aging, Allan variance, Phase noise, Frequency control, Frequency standard, Clock, Time, Timekeeping, Atomic frequency standard, Rubidium standard, Cesium standard, Atomic resonator, Radiation effects, Vibration effects.