Showing papers on "Internationalization published in 2011"

Student Mobilities, Migration and the Internationalization of Higher Education

Abstract: The last ten years have seen the deepening and expansion of the process of internationalization in relation to higher education. This process is multi-faceted and has included the development of education 'brands' as governments and educational institutions become increasingly entrepreneurial in their approach to higher education. The number of students who choose to study abroad has also increased considerably. Although there is a growing academic literature on the internationalization of higher education, students' own perspectives - on their motivations, objectives and experiences - are sorely lacking. Student Mobilities, Migration and the Internationalization of Higher Education is intended to address this gap. Its strong empirical focus, drawing on case studies of mobile students from East Asia, mainland Europe and the UK, helps to develop an in-depth understanding of both the commonalities and differences in the experiences of students from different parts of the world who choose to move abroad to pursue a higher education. It discusses the implications of their movement for contemporary higher education and for our understanding of migration more generally.

Social ties and international entrepreneurship: Opportunities and constraints affecting firm internationalization

Abstract: International entrepreneurship involves the identification and exploitation of opportunities for international exchange. Yet little is known about the entrepreneurial methods used for opportunity recognition. While previous work emphasizes effects operating at the level of the business network, I propose that the recognition of exchange opportunities is a highly subjective process, shaped by entrepreneurs’ existing ties with others. Based on interview data collected from 41 managers, I develop a comprehensive measure for classifying different methods of opportunity recognition. I then use this measure to classify 665 international exchange ventures set up by entrepreneurs in four Chinese cities. In contrast with past research I find virtually no role for blind luck. Although the majority of exchange opportunities were discovered rather than sought, these discoveries were intentional rather than accidental. I also find that entrepreneurs’ idiosyncratic connections with others both promote and inhibit international exchange. Tie-based opportunities lead to higher-quality and more valuable exchanges that are constrained in terms of geographic, psychic and linguistic distance. From this I conclude that entrepreneurial networks have distinct opportunity horizons that limit the reach of tie-based exchanges and potentially lead to sub-optimal internationalization trajectories.

Education Hubs: A Fad, a Brand, an Innovation?

Abstract: The last decade has seen significant changes in all aspects of internationalization but most dramatically in the area of education and research moving across national borders. The most recent developments are education hubs. The term education hub is being used by countries who are trying to build a critical mass of local and foreign actors—including students, education institutions, companies, knowledge industries, science and technology centers—who, thorough interaction and in some cases colocation, engage in education, training, knowledge production, and innovation initiatives. It is understood that countries have different objectives, priorities, and take different approaches to developing themselves as a reputed center for higher education excellence, expertise, and economy. However, given higher education’s current preoccupation with competitiveness, global branding, and rankings, one is not sure whether a country’s plan to develop itself as an education hub is a fad, the latest branding strategy, o...

Extending the internationalization process model: Increases and decreases of MNE commitment in emerging economies

Abstract: The internationalization process model suggests that firms internationalize by building positions in foreign markets and networks, following iterative cycles of learning and changes in commitment. However, as subsidiaries evolve, commitments may be decreased as well as increased, a phenomenon that has rarely been studied. Moreover, it remains an open question why strategic intentions at the outset of an investment project differ from the actual operations established. We address these questions by extending the model and combining it with Mintzberg and Waters’ framework of strategy formation. Specifically, we suggest that commitment decisions correspond to statements of intended strategy, while network positions correspond to realized strategies. The processes of learning, opportunity creation and trust building triggered by commitment decisions are, however, moderated by institutional influences that lead to divergences between realized and intended strategies. We test propositions derived from this framework on a survey data set of subsidiaries of multinational enterprises in Hungary, Lithuania and Poland, and find that institutional voids and institutional uncertainty affect subsidiary strategy implementation, but in opposing directions. Under high institutional uncertainty, investors prefer low commitment but flexible modes that enable later commitment increases, whereas institutional voids increase up-front information search and adaptation costs that reduce the likelihood of early post-entry adjustments. Our analysis reinforces the need for more differentiated theoretical analyses of how institutions affect business strategies over time.

International entrepreneurship, born globals and the theory of effectuation

Abstract: Purpose– The purpose of this study is to enhance the understanding of a born global firm’s earlyinternationalization process and the entrepreneur’s decisions regarding internationalization by using ...

Post–Entry Speed of International New Ventures:

Abstract: We conceptualize a learning–based model of international new ventures (INVs)’ post–entry internationalization speed focusing upon two measures: country scope speed and international commitment spee...

The Role of Entrepreneurial Networks in the Exploration and Exploitation of Internationalization Opportunities by Information and Communication Technology Firms

Abstract: This article investigates the role of entrepreneurial social and business networks in the internationalization of high-technology firms. The authors present case study evidence from born-global information and communication technology firms that shows that established and newly formed social networks can be instrumental in exploring internationalization opportunities. These social networks potentially lead to collaborative cooperation and form part of an entrepreneur's broader business network that facilitates exploitation of internationalization opportunities culminated by successful entry into foreign markets. The study incorporates contemporary literature and offers an internationalization opportunity exploration–exploitation model emanating from the entrepreneur's network configuration. In doing so, it takes a process approach and provides much needed qualitative evidence in network research.

International Entrepreneurship and Capability DevelopmentQualitative Evidence and Future Research Directions

Abstract: In this article, we explore how new capabilities emerge and solidify in new ventures that are faced with fundamental uncertainty from their environment. To do so, we draw from the organizational and entrepreneurial literature on cognition and capabilities. Using initial qualitative evidence from a multifirm study in the context of new venture internationalization, we develop a cognition-based model of capability emergence in new ventures. Our findings extend the capability development and learning implications of internationalization to the fundamental character of organizing processes in start-ups. Moreover, we derive avenues for future entrepreneurship research on the origins and evolution of capabilities in new ventures.

Environmental Innovations, Local Networks and Internationalization

Abstract: This paper investigates the drivers of the environmental innovations (EI) introduced by firms in local production systems (LPS). The role of firm network relationships, agglomeration economies and internationalization strategies is analysed for a sample of 555 firms in the Emilia-Romagna region, North-East of Italy. Cooperating with ‘qualified’ local actors – i.e. universities and suppliers – is the most important driver of EI for most firms, along with their training policies and IT innovations. The role of agglomeration economies is less clear and seems to depend on the EI propensity of more locally oriented firms playing in district areas, which might even turn agglomeration into dis-economies. Networking effects and agglomeration economies are instead found to strongly promote the adoption of EI by multinational firms, thus highlighting the importance of local-global interactions. We provide some interesting findings for particular kinds of challenging EI in fields as CO2 abatement and ISO labelling, generally extending the analysis EI driver by joining local and international factors.

Agency Perspectives on Corporate Governance of Multinational Enterprises

Abstract: This paper argues for a greater focus on an agency theory (AT) perspective in understanding corporate governance in multinational enterprises (MNEs) since, despite recent developments, the traditional internalization theory approach limits our understanding of the behaviour of these firms. We analyse the contribution of an AT perspective to understanding various aspects of corporate governance in MNEs: internationalization, international joint ventures (IJVs), headquarters–subsidiary relationships, and new forms of global business groups. From this analysis, we suggest that even with the emerging AT literature's focus on the role of ownership as a key governance factor, there is substantial need for research on several key corporate governance mechanisms; namely, the role and nature of dominant owners, the composition of boards of directors, the separation of CEOs and board chairs, executive remuneration, and the role of the market for corporate control. There is scope to examine further the implications of different institutional environments for AT perspectives on the behaviour of MNEs.

Board Influence on a Firm's Internationalization

Abstract: Manuscript Type: Empirical Research Question/Issues: The resource-based view of the firm may provide the theoretical explanation as to how boards can be a source of firm competitive advantage. Directors' experience, knowledge, expertise are valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable resources that making up the board potential. These resources must be integrated with others firm resources in strategic processes through dynamics of relations. Research Findings/Insights: Given the preliminary nature of this work, the empirical section is an exclusive analysis of the board's potential. Our specific aim is to establish whether resources that directors bring to board are sources of board competence and ability with consequences for international strategic decisions. To do this, we use a sample of 562 board members of 45 listed Spanish companies. Our results show that the average board tenure is negatively related to the firm's degree of international diversification. Directors with long tenures may operate from the basis of routines that are built up over time and their knowledge of the firm could eventually become a less valuable resource. The empirical findings also indicate that the directors' managerial experience within the specific industry to which the firm belongs and a high level of academic achievement, affects the firm's degree of international diversification. Theoretical/Academic Implications: The contribution of this article is three-fold; it emphasizes the role of directors in the board effectiveness, investigating why and how relevant elements of directors' human capital can enhance board ability to perform their roles making up the board potential. Secondly, it refines and extends the concept of "board capability" as an adequate configuration of potential and relationship dynamics that allow board to undertake their task competently over the time. Third, this article stresses the active participation of board in firm internationalization. Practitioner/Policy Implications: One of the important practical implications of these results refers to the selection of board members. In order to increase board effectiveness, in the context of firm internationalization, the selection process must be guided by the search of intangibles, inimitable and unique resources, which the board can capitalize on in order to differentiate its potential over competitors. Keywords: Corporate Governance, Directors' Resources, Board Capability, Board Potential, Internationalization.

Effects of alliances, time, and network cohesion on the initiation of foreign sales by new ventures

Abstract: In this study, we seek to advance the network perspective on new venture internationalization by examining the role of networks in accelerating new venture sales into foreign markets. We propose that knowledge derived from ventures' technology and marketing alliances increases the likelihood that new ventures begin exploiting opportunities in international markets. We also argue that the extent to which the networks open the venture to new knowledge or constrain it to knowledge already shared among the partners will influence the initiation of foreign sales by a venture. Using a longitudinal dataset of 118 ventures in the U.S. biotechnology industry, we confirm that different types of alliances (and, therefore, different types of knowledge—technology and marketing knowledge) differentially impact the likelihood of new venture internationalization. Moreover, network cohesion among venture alliances increases the likelihood that marketing alliances will promote initial foreign market sales, but decreases the likelihood that technology alliances will do so. Our research is a timely response to a call for the study of interactive effects among network structure, complex tasks, and time, and it provides a possible explanation for certain unexpected findings in studies that did not consider the effects of time. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Improvised internationalization in new ventures: The role of prior knowledge and networks

Abstract: How do entrepreneurs identify foreign market opportunities and how do they identify foreign market(s) and customers? We draw on the concepts of effectuation, improvisation, prior knowledge and networks to study the early internationalization of new ventures operating in the Irish Shellfish sector. We argue that the internationalization process was strongly influenced by two ‘resources to hand’: the entrepreneurs’ idiosyncratic prior knowledge and their prior social and business ties. We observe an effectuation logic and extensive improvisation in the internationalization process of these new ventures.

Transnational spaces of education: the growth of the international school sector

Abstract: One area in which the impact of globalisation can be seen is that of education. This article suggests that there are currently two main aspects of the growing internationalisation of education at school level: the internationalisation of national systems of education and the growth in numbers of international schools worldwide. It is the latter that forms the main focus of the article, beginning with consideration of the background to the development of international schools. A discussion of the changing nature of international schools then follows, as this form of education proves increasingly attractive not only to the globally mobile expatriates for whom such schools were originally founded, but also to those seeking a competitive edge for their child in a globalised market.

The relationship between scientists' research performance and the degree of internationalization of their research

Abstract: Policy makers, at various levels of governance, generally encourage the development of research collaboration. However the underlying determinants of collaboration are not completely clear. In particular, the literature lacks studies that, taking the individual researcher as the unit of analysis, attempt to understand if and to what extent the researcher's scientific performance might impact on his/her degree of collaboration with foreign colleagues. The current work examines the international collaborations of Italian university researchers for the period 2001---2005, and puts them in relation to each individual's research performance. The results of the investigation, which assumes co-authorship as proxy of research collaboration, show that both research productivity and average quality of output have positive effects on the degree of international collaboration achieved by a scientist.

Teaching and learning for international students: towards a transcultural approach

Abstract: Discourses of internationalisation in higher education often neglect one of the most effective sources of intercultural knowledge and understanding; the international students who increasingly inhabit university campuses around the world. International education is now big business in Anglophone universities such as in the UK and Australia, with 15% of students (United Kingdom Council for International Student Affairs, 2010) and 21% of students (Australian International Education, 2010a) respectively being international students. However, benefits for nations and universities are at risk due to a range of teaching and learning issues that affect the learning experiences of international students and are problematic for both staff and students. This paper draws on research over the past two decades to discuss the nature of these issues and provides an overview of the three stages that can be discerned in universities’ responses to the influx of international students. This analysis points to a changing pat...

Sequencing the expansion of geographic scope and foreign operations by "born global" firms

Abstract: “Born global” firms are not actually “born” global, but rather internationalize rapidly from their inception by expanding their geographic scope and extent of foreign operations. However, it remains unclear whether such firms: (1) simultaneously expand along both dimensions; (2) focus on expanding along a single dimension at a given time, and switch interchangeably between expanding geographic scope and extent of foreign operations in subsequent periods; or (3) stick solely to a specific internationalization path over several subsequent periods. This study theorizes and empirically demonstrates that born global firms stick to a dominant internationalization path over subsequent periods. Arguably, this phenomenon reflects managerial efforts to reduce the perceived risk of internationalization, and their preference to develop and leverage capabilities that are specific to either of the internationalization paths until the economies of further expanding this path are exhausted.

The R & D factor in international trade and international investment of United States industries

Abstract: IN THE last ten or fifteen years, the field of international trade theory has been in continuous ferment.' The received doctrine drawn from the mainstream of Smith-Ricardo-Mill-MarshallHeckscher-Ohlin has been re-examined from many different angles. Sometimes, there have been strongly revisionist reactions, such as those encountered in the economic development area.2 In other contexts, the emphasis has been mainly on the further testing and refinement of the doctrine of comparative advantage and the role of factor endowments. Much of the discussion of U.S. trade performance in recent years has taken for granted the main premises of classical and neoclassical theory. A considerable part of the debate over the interpretation of the Leontief paradox and much of the discussion of the implications of other recent empirical work have concentrated on questions of national factor endowments, or the response of national production functions to different factor prices, or other issues readily compatible with the classical theoretical structure. Leontief, for instance, was inclined to "explain" his familiar paradox by asserting that skilled labor may be relatively cheap in the U.S. economy. Nonetheless, one can also detect an echo of the discontent voiced so effectively by Williams in 1929, a discontent based on the view that classical doctrine is not structured to deal efficiently with the trade implications of a number of forces that may be of major consequence in any descriptive and analytical work (see Hoffmeyer, 1958; MacDougall, 1957; Linder, 1961; Kindleberger, 1962). For the most part, the literature of dissent seems to have sprung out of efforts to explain the foreign trade patterns of the United States, especially the country's exports of manufactured goods. U.S. labor, it has been observed, is higher priced than labor abroad, to an extent which greatly exceeds any productivity differences (Kreinin, 1965). To be sure, U.S. capital is cheaper and less tightly rationed. But the effective interest rate for major industrial borrowers only differs by a few percentage points among the advanced countries. This difference hardly seems enough to explain the strength and persistence of U.S. exports in manufactured products. From capital and labor cost considerations, therefore, attention has turned to questions of innovation, of scale, of leads * Gruber's contribution to this work was financed by a grant from the M.I.T. Center for Space Research funded by NASA, while the work of Mehta and Vernon was financed by a grant from the Ford Foundation to the Harvard Business School for the study of multinational enterprise and nation states. Calculations were done at the M.I.T. Computation Center.

The Influence of networking on the internationalization of SMEs: Evidence from internationalized Chinese firms

Abstract: This study investigates influential networking behaviours in supporting the internationalization of SMEs. Using primary data collected from 210 Chinese SMEs in Beijing and Hong Kong, regression ana...

Intention as a cognitive antecedent to international entrepreneurship—understanding the moderating roles of knowledge and experience

Abstract: While International Entrepreneurship has attracted scholars’ attention during the last two decades, the impact cognitive aspects exert has been studied on cursory level only. The purpose of this paper was to apply the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to the very field of International Entrepreneurship in order to examine whether this theory contributes to clarify what influences Small and Medium-sized Enterprises’ (SME) decision-makers’ intention—an important cognitive antecedent to behavior—to play an active part in internationalization. In particular, it had to be clarified whether or not International Entrepreneurship—due to its contextual specificities—deserves to be extended by further elements, i.e. experience and knowledge. Based on more than 100 responses from German SME executives, the study yielded several interesting results. First, TPB indeed helps explain how intentions to actively participate in international business are built. Second, an extension of the theory’s basic model seems to make sense, probably due to the specificities of international entrepreneurial behavior. As for the extensions, direct and moderating effects have been observed. Furthermore, cognitive elements seem to be key entrepreneurial resources which serve as sort of enablers. From these results several conclusions can be drawn. Cognitive aspects are a promising starting point for understanding decision-making in SME. Thus, the intersection of international entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial cognition deserves further attention—several examples for possible future studies are presented. Policies supporting SME should be extended: pure resource-based approaches seem to be insufficient. Furthermore, entrepreneurship courses and curricula should reflect the relevance of cognitive aspects.

Shifting Patterns of the Government’s Policies for the Internationalization of Korean Higher Education:

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of changing patterns since the mid-1990s in the Korean government’s policies for internationalizing its higher education system. The study examin...

Internationalisation of higher education: integrating international students into Canadian academic environment

Abstract: Fuelled by globalisation, the internationalisation of higher education in Canada is happening at a rapid pace. One manifestation of internationalisation is the increasing enrolment of international graduate students in Canadian institutions. Many of these students face challenges and barriers in integrating into Canadian academic environments including isolation, alienation, marginalisation and low self-esteem. This case study investigates a programme at a large Canadian university intended to help international graduate students with their adaptation to an unfamiliar academic environment. The research shows that the programme was successful in creating a transnational learning space where international students developed a sense of belonging, increased cross-cultural understanding and raised awareness about global issues. More importantly, it helped international students with their integration into a Canadian learning community. The findings have important implications for the development of programmes ...