Showing papers on "Second-language acquisition published in 1982"

Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition

Abstract: This text explores the relationship between second language teaching practice and what is known about the process of second language acquisition and summarizes the current state of second language acquisition theory.-- Draws general conclusions about the application of theory to methods and materials and describes the characteristics that effective materials should include.-- Concludes that language acquisition occurs best when language is used for the purpose for which it was designed: communication.

An intergroup approach to second language acquisition

Abstract: In this paper, we shall outline a recent social psychological approach to language and ethnicity which attends to the issue: who in an ethnic group uses what language variety, when and why? More specifically, it allows us to understand the processes underlying group members’ desires to attenuate and even create their own distinctive ethnolinguistic varieties (Giles, Bourhis & Taylor, 1977; Giles & Johnson, 1981). It is suggested that this framework is likely to advance our knowledge of factors influencing successful acquisition of a second language. Two current social psychological models of second language acquisition in inter‐ethnic contexts (Gardner, 1979; Clement, 1980a; 1980b) are then compared and evaluated critically. Whilst these models exhibit significant theoretical advances in the area, it is argued that they nonetheless possess certain deficiencies. Prime amongst these concerns is their failure to take into account explicitly processes (such as ethnic identification) which are accorde...

Understanding Reading Problems: Assessment and Instruction

Abstract: (Each chapter concludes with a Summary and References.). I. ASSESSMENT. 1. Reading and Its Assessment. What Teachers Need to Know about Reading Assessment. The Reading Process and Reading Problems. Changing Trends in Assessment. 2. Assessment for Internal Audiences: On-going Assessment. Running Records. Observations for Reading Behaviors and Strategies. Monitoring Types and Difficulty of Texts Read. Close Procedures. Monitoring Spelling Progress and Problems. Monitoring Growth in Writing. 3. Assessment for Internal Audiences: Periodic In-Depth Assessments. Levels of Reading Ability. Informal Reading Inventories. Administering an Informal Reading Inventory. Scoring an Informal Reading Inventory. Interpreting an Informal Reading Inventory. Supplementing Informal Assessments. 4. Assessment for Internal Audiences: Portfolio Assessment. Perspectives on Authentic Assessment and Evaluation. Why Keep Portfolios? Beginning a Portfolio Program. Keeping Portfolios. Evaluating Portfolios. Portfolio Conferences. Reproducible Forms. 5. Assessment for External Audiences: Formal Measures. Understanding Formal Tests. Characteristics of Tests. Interpreting Test Results. Norm-Referenced Tests. Criterion-Referenced Tests. Minimum Competency Testing. Sources of Test Information. II. INSTRUCTION. 6. Emergent and Beginning Literacy. Different Conceptions of Early Literacy. The Transition from Emergent Literacy to Beginning Reading. Understanding and Assessing Emergent and Beginning Literacy. Teaching for Emergent and Beginning Literacy. Reading Storybooks. Little Books. Series Books. Teaching Print Orientation Concepts. Teaching the Alphabet. Teaching the Concept of Word. Exercises to Develop Phonemic Awareness. Exercises to Teach Word Recognition and Letter-to-Sound Correspondences. Teaching for Comprehension. Early Intervention Programs. 7. Assessing and Teaching Developing Readers. Introduction. Developing Sight Vocabulary. Support Reading: Echo and Choral Reading. Developing Reading Fluency. Repeated Readings for Fluency. Developing Word Analysis Strategies. Developing Reading Comprehension. Developing Listening Comprehension. Time Spent Reading. 8. Mature Readers and Writers. From Learning-to-Read to Reading-to-Learn. A Model of Instruction to Guide Reading-to-Learn. Strategies for the Anticipation Phase. Strategies for the Investigation Phase. Strategies for the Reflection Phase. Understanding Patterns of Text Organization. Vocabulary. 9. Adolescent Readers with Reading Problems. Guiding Principles and Theories. Classifying the Adolescent Student with Reading Problems. 10. Strategies for Teaching Reading and Writing to English Learners. The Context of Teaching English Learners to Read and Write. Second Language Acquisition. Teaching English Learners to Read and Write in English. Scaffolding Strategies for Improving Reading Comprehension. Some Issues in Assessing the Reading and Writing of English Learners. 11. Assessing Factors Related to Reading Problems. Philosophical and Legal Issues Related to Special-Needs Students. Intellectual Factors. Physical Factors. Language Difficulties and Disorders. Special Learning Problems. Acknowledgements. Index.

Teaching and Learning Languages

Abstract: Following a nontechnical account of how teacher and students interact, and how the mind deals with foreign language data, this text describes a wide range of teaching techniques, It discusses the advantages as well as disadvantages revealed through personal experience.

A Direction for Contrastive Analysis: The Comparative Study of Developmental Sequences*

Abstract: This paper compares developmental sequences for mature L2 structures with a view to determining influences of the learner's L1 on them. Two kinds of L1 influence are identified: the pace with which a sequence is traversed and the number of developmental structures in a sequence. The paper concludes with some tentative proposals concerning the interaction of prior L1 knowledge and the creative construction process. Second language acquisition research of the last several years has contributed much toward a refinement of the contrastive analysis hypothesis as originally proposed by Lado in 1957. For one, given the dynamic nature of second language acquisition, it has become evident that contrastive descriptions based on mature structures of the L2 are of doubtful validity in attempts to predict points of facilitation or interference. In this approach, the contrastive researcher is comparing an ideal terminal state, equivalent to quasi-native speakers competence in the L2, with the learner's L1. Structures of the L2, however, are acquired by progressing through a sequence of developmental stages. Hence, if the contrastive analysis hypothesis is to provide a theoretical perspective for second language acquisition study, it is paramount that the role of prior L1 knowledge be conceptualized as a variable which may introduce variation into a developmental sequence. A further refinement of the contrastive analysis hypothesis has been made possible by mounting evidence pointing to the indirect and highly constrained nature of Li influence. Marked structural contrast, for example, tends to promote avoidance or underrepresentation rather than a mechanical imposition of Li structures (Schachter 1974, Hakuta 1975). Work by Kellerman (1977), Gass (1979), and Gundel, Sheldon, and Tarone (1981) converges on the insight that linguistic features which are marked by virtue of their limited distribution cross-linguistically will tend not to be eligible candidates for Ll influence. Also, now that some of the dust surrounding the morpheme order studies has settled, a picture that has * An earlier version of this paper bearing a different title was presented at the 15th Annual TESOL Conference, Detroit, March 3-8. The author is indebted to Stephen Krashen for some valuable discussion and correspondence.

Criteria of language learning

Abstract: A language is called natural just in case it can be internalized by human infants on the basis of the kind of casual linguistic exposure typically afforded the young. A theory of natural language will specify (a) the kind of linguistic input available to children, (b) the process by which children convert that experience into successive hypotheses about the input language, and (c) the criteria for "internalization of a language" to which children ultimately conform. From (a)-(c) it should be possible to deduce (d) the class of languages that can be internalized in the sense of (c) by the learning mechanism specified in (b) operating on linguistic input of the kind characterized in (a). Such a theory is correct only if (d) contains exactly the natural languages. Wexler and his associates (Hamburger and Wexler, 1973; Wexler and Culicover, 1980, Chap. 1) provide detailed discussion of theories of natural language in the present sense. Gold (1967) has provided specifications of (a)--(c) that have played major roles in subsequent evaluation of theories of natural language. ~ In Gold's model, linguistic input is construed as an enumeration of the sentences of the target language, arranged in arbitrary order; the process embodied by the human language learner is assumed to be "mechanical" in the sense of realizing a computable function of some sort; and the learner is credited with the capacity to acquire a language L just in case for every order of presen-

Language Impaired Children's Performance in an Additive Bilingual Education Program.

Abstract: Cognitive, academic, first language, and second language abilities of language impaired children attending French immersion programs were assessed in kindergarten and in grade 1. After two years of instruction in a second language the linguistic and cognitive skills of these children were similar to a comparable group of language impaired children who were educated in their first language. The language impaired children were also acquiring proficiency in second language skills, although not to the same levels of proficiency as French immersion children with normal first language abilities. The results are discussed in light of current theories of optimal language of instruction.

The Natural Approach to Language Teaching: An Update

Abstract: philosophy of language teaching which I called the "Natural Approach" (NA).1 My suggestions at that time were the outgrowth of experience with Dutch and Spanish classes in which the target languages were taught to beginners whose native language was English. Since then the NA has been used in primary, secondary, and adult ESL classes, as well as in secondary, university, and adult Spanish, French, and German classes. During these five years of experimentation we have concentrated on the development of teaching techniques to implement the original proposals. This paper has two purposes: 1) to discuss the underlying assumptions of the 1977 paper in light of recent research in second language acquisition and learning, as well as from personal experience in the classroom; and 2) to suggest specific techniques for implementing the NA in second or foreign language class-

Spanish-English Language Switching in Speech and Literature: Theories and Models.

Abstract: Language switching among Spanish-English bilinguals living in the United States is one of the most salient characteristics of this speech population and has been the subject of comment and research by educators, psychologists, linguists, anthropologists, and literary investigators. Originally, before critical focus was directed at this phenomenon, language switching (later to become known as "code-switching" was taken as evidence for internal mental confusion, the inability to separate two languages sufficiently to warrant the designation of true bilingualism. With the advent of interest in sociolinguistic and ethnolinguistic investigations of non-prestige groups, code-switching became the object of scientific scrutiny, with the unsurprising result that it was shown to be governed by a complicated and as yet not fully delimited set of constraints, indicating a complex and structured interaction between the two languages in the internal cognitive apparatus of the bilingual?a far cry from the anarchical confusion postulated previously. At present, scholarly interest in bilingualism is high and code-switching, particularly between Spanish and English, is an almost constant topic of discussion. Many states are under a mandate to provide bilingual education for language minorities and in the concomitant process of determining language standards for classroom use the problem of language mixture continues to appear, often encumbered by a clutter of anecdotal, misleading, and incomplete descriptions that reflect ignorance, prejudice, and disinterest. Despite this almost overwhelming diversity of motivations for directing attention to bilingual language switching, certain common denominators may be extracted, which promise both immediate and long-range dividends for research scholars and educators alike, and as such are worth comparing. It is the purpose of this article to offer an appraisal of the major research strategies affecting the linguistic study of Spanish-English code-switching, which have implications for the determination of the linguistic competence of bilinguals and the manner in which the two languages are represented in the cognitive apparatus. Particular emphasis will be placed on the potential benefits of work currently in progress, by both the present writer and other investigators who have dedicated themselves to the study of bilingual code-switching. Code-switching provides evidence on two interrelated planes: linguistic and psychological. The latter includes the situational variables that permit a switch to occur, while the former includes the linguistic factors that facilitate the switch and the precise form that a switched utterance takes. An additional dichotomy is the study of language switching in the spontaneous speech of bilinguals and switching as reflected in written documents in which it becomes a literary device; this is found most frequently in the works of certain contemporary United States Hispanic writers. An analysis of written code-switching may be of great value in tracing the psychological variables that come into play and promises to provide a broader perspective on the affective values of language mixing. It is obvious that language switching in literature is not the result of confusion or inability to separate the languages, but rather stems from a conscious desire to juxtapose the two codes to achieve some particular literary effect, which in turn presumably reflects an inner drive that

Politeness Strategies and Second Language Acquisition.

Abstract: The two studies reported here investigated the notion of politeness as perceived by native speakers of English and advanced learners of English. The questions which concerned us included: (1) Are native speakers of English really aware of the varying degree of politeness conveyed by a given English sentence?; (2) Is there a high correlation between native speakers of English and advanced learners of English in their politeness judgements?; (3) Do native speakers of English really use different politeness strategies in different situations?; (4) Is there a high correlation between native and nonnative speakers of English in the use of politeness strategies? From a theoretical point of view, Study I was concerned with Lakoff's (1973b) claim that politeness increases with decreasing imposition; Study II was concerned with the distance-politeness hypothesis which predicts that one will use polite strategies in situations where he perceives himself as psychological and/or socially distant from his addresee. From a pedagogical point of view, the comparison of the two studies here suggested that the learner's ability of judging politeness in the target language does not necessarily mean that he can use politeness strategies appropriately in actual communication situations.

Mimicry of Non-distinctive Phonetic Differences Between Language Varieties

Abstract: A delayed mimicry paradigm was used to assess speakers′ awareness of non-distinctive phonetic differences which in part distinguish languages. The notion of “phonological filtering” implies that second language learners may not be able to perceive phonetic differences between their native language and a foreign language unless the phonetic differences are linguistically relevant in the native language. If cross-language phonetic differences are in fact perceived poorly, it is unlikely that phonetic modification will occur in the course of naturalistic second language acquisition. In this study native English speakers familiar with Spanish-accented English attempted to read sentences with a Spanish accent. Acoustic measurements showed that two phonetic characteristics of English—the long VOT values associated with /p, t, k/ and final-syllable lengthening—were altered in the direction of Spanish and Spanish-accented English. These results provide tentative evidence that non-distinctive phonetic differences between languages are detectable by language learners and thus do not present an insuperable barrier to phonetic learning in second language acquisition.

The acquisition of a second language phonology: Interaction of transfer and developmental factors

Abstract: The acquisition of a second language phonology is examined with reference to two hypotheses: (1) the developmental position that second language phonology acquisition parallels first language acquisition versus (2) the transfer position that the learner’s phonological knowledge in the first language directly influences acquisition of a second language phonology. These two hypotheses are evaluated in light of data from a six-year-old Icelandic child learning English in a naturalistic setting, with particular emphasis on fricatives and affricates. This child’s phonological acquisition is best accounted for as a systematic interaction between transfer from the first language and developmental processes. Transfer best predicts the relative difficulty of particular segments, while the developmental hypothesis best predicts which sounds will be substituted for those difficult segments.

Foreign language aptitude and intelligence

Abstract: Notwithstanding the predictive value of foreign language aptitude measures, the underlying ability or abilities tapped by them and their relationship to measures of intelligence are not well understood. This study provides a partial characterization of the nature of language aptitude through correlations and factor analyses of the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and the Primary Mental Abilities Test (PMA). The subjects of the study were 793 English-speaking Canadian public servants at various stages of intensive French language training. The results revealed substantial redundancy among the subtests of the MLAT and PMA batteries and a Kaiser's Little Jiffy factor analysis yielded a one-factor solution at the second-order level. A principal factors solution, however, identified three interpretable second-order factors, characterized respectively as first language verbal knowledge, abstract reasoning ability, and ability to learn new language elements and associations. A unitary third-order factor was also identified, probably approximating Spearman's g. Taken together, the findings of the study are compatible with the conceptualization of language aptitude according to a hierarchical model which subsumes specific abilities of importance in the language classroom under a more encompassing general ability, or general intelligence.

Markedness in second language acquisition1

Abstract: Second language acquisition research to date has applied markedness concepts largely to L1-L2 transfer, and this work is briefly summarized. Yet there is a neglected potential for such application to ongoing L2 developmental research as well. As an illustration of this, the data from three different studies are reanalyzed in order to show that an otherwise unexplained order of acquisition can be accounted for from a markedness perspective. There is still a need, however, for looking beyond the distributional characteristics of the exponents of formal syntax if a greater understanding of the acquisition of more complex language is to be achieved. Of prime interest, therefore, is the extent to which we can apply markedness theory to discourse, and a framework for viewing discourse from a markedness perspective is suggested.

Social Bases of Language Development: A Reassessment

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter introduces child language research and linguistic theory that forms the base for language development. Researchers in child language look outside linguistic theory for the “causes” of development, seeking both cognitive and social influences on language acquisition and language structure. Of the two affairs, one with cognitive and the other with social theories, the chapter concentrates on the search for social influences on language acquisition. It concludes that the case for externally driven, structural effects on language development is not very good. Research on social factors in language acquisition has concentrated primarily on these kinds of effects, and as a result, social-causal theories have not yet obtained adequate empirical support.

Teaching-Induced Aspects of Interlanguage Discourse.

Abstract: The paper examines the influence of the formal classroom as a learning environment on the discourse behaviour of advanced German students of English in conversations with English native speakers. It is proposed that FL teaching as a causal factor in the formation of IL-specific rules can operate either directly, in presenting the learner with FL material which deviates from target norms, or indirectly, by triggering off psycholinguistic processes which in turn lead to IL-specific rule formation. These are referred to as primary and secondary teaching induction, respectively. On a more concrete level, the impact of two constituents of FL teaching on IL discourse is discussed:(1) the textbook and other teaching materials;(2) classroom specific discourse norms.The influence of the first factor type manifests itself primarily in (a) the use of an inappropriately formal register, (b) an inappropriate use of modal verbs. The second factor type is found to result in (a) rising intonation with non-interrogative function, (b) inappropriate propositional explicitness of speech act realizations and discourse functions, (c) “complete sentence” responses, (d) a lack of marking for expressive and relational functions (“speech act modality”).In conclusion of the data analysis, a classroom specific pidgin will be hypothesized which, when transferred to non-classroom settings, leads to pragmatically inappropriate communicative behaviour.On a more general level, it will be postulated that second language acquisition hypotheses should be formulated with reference to specific types of acquisition/learning contexts.

Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition in Preschool Children

Abstract: The great burst of research activity on first language development over the past two decades has had a very marked, and positive, influence on research on bilingualism and second language development. First language research methodology has been adopted by investigators of bilingualism and second language acquisition, and empirical findings from the first language field have generated questions about the processes involved in bilingualism and second language acquisition.

The Communicative Functions of Lexical Usage by Language Impaired Children.

Abstract: This study examines the communicative functions served by the lexical usage of normal and language impaired children whose speech was limited to single-word utterances. The two groups were similar in the frequency with which they produced utterances serving most of the functions. However, naming was more frequent in the normal children's speech, while answering was more frequent in the speech of the language impaired children. The two groups were indistinguishable in terms of the number of different lexical items they used in the service of each of the communicative functions.

The Acquisition of Morphology by a Bilingual Child: A Whole-Word Approach.

Abstract: ADDRESS FOR CORRESPONDENCEMarilyn May Vihman, Department of Linguistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305ABSTRACTThe avoidance of inflectional markers, a kind of "macrodevelopment'' in the acquisition of morphol-ogy, is described in this analysis bf the strategies displayed by a bilingual child simultaneouslyexposed to Estonian and to English. A whole-word approach was manifested in: the acquisition ofpostpositions before case endings; the learning of pronominal case and other suppletive or irregularforms before regular markers were used; the borrowing of the analytic English construction with haveinto Estonian; and the preference for did + verb for the expression of the English past tense. Ininterpreting these data the factor of bilingualism per se is weighed against the possible existence of awhole-word approach to language in general as a manifestation of a particular cognitive style.

Verbal processes in children : progress in cognitive development research

Abstract: 1 Two Decades of Referential Communication Research: A Review and Meta-Analysis.- Design of This Review.- Frequently Studied Variables in Referential Communication Research.- Effects of Egocentrism and Role Taking.- Effects of Training.- Current Trends and Future Directions in Referential Communication Research.- Appendix: References Included in Meta-Analysis.- References.- 2 Bilingual and Second Language Acquisition in Preschool Children.- Simultaneous Acquisition of Two Languages.- Sequential Acquisition of a Second Language.- Metalinguistic Awareness.- References.- 3 Cognitive Processes and Reading Disability: A CritiqueProposal.- Traditional Views.- An Alternative Proposal.- Summary and Conclusions.- Reference Notes.- References.- 4 Acquisition of Word Meaning in the Context of the Development of the Semantic System.- Types of Semantic Relations.- Word-Meaning Relations.- Developmental Considerations.- Principles of Semantic Development.- Development of Substantive Word Meaning.- Nature of the Substantive Word Meaning Semantic Field.- Development of Other Types of Word Meaning.- Concluding Remarks.- References.- 5 Memory Strategy Instruction with Children.- Overview of Memory Tasks and Strategies.- Strategy Instruction and Learning Gains.- Which Children Benefit from Strategy Training?.- Memory Strategy Instruction in the Future.- Final Comments.- Reference Notes.- References.- 6 Children's Understanding of Stories: A Basis for Moral Judgment and Dilemma Resolution.- Inferring and Using Intent Information from Different Sources.- Experiment 1.- Understanding and Resolving Dilemmas.- Experiment 2.- General Discussion.- References.- 7 Verbal Processing in Poor and Normal Readers.- Definition of the Population.- Components of Word Identification.- Primacy of Verbal Processes in the Acquisition of Skill in Reading.- Nonverbal Deficit Theories.- Verbal Deficit Hypothesis.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 8 Growing Up Explained: Vygotskians Look at the Language of Causality.- Structuralism: Causal Language as the Window on Reason.- Functionalism: Building a World of Shared Meanings.- Dialectics: The Tools and Results of Causality.- References.