Showing papers on "Situation awareness published in 1995"

Toward a Theory of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems

Abstract: This paper presents a theoretical model of situation awareness based on its role in dynamic human decision making in a variety of domains. Situation awareness is presented as a predominant concern in system operation, based on a descriptive view of decision making. The relationship between situation awareness and numerous individual and environmental factors is explored. Among these factors, attention and working memory are presented as critical factors limiting operators from acquiring and interpreting information from the environment to form situation awareness, and mental models and goal-directed behavior are hypothesized as important mechanisms for overcoming these limits. The impact of design features, workload, stress, system complexity, and automation on operator situation awareness is addressed, and a taxonomy of errors in situation awareness is introduced, based on the model presented. The model is used to generate design implications for enhancing operator situation awareness and future directio...

Measurement of Situation Awareness in Dynamic Systems

Abstract: Methodologies for the empirical measurement of situation awareness are reviewed, including a discussion of the advantages and disadvantages of each method and the potential limitations of the measures from a theoretical and practical viewpoint. Two studies are presented that investigate questions of validity and intrusiveness regarding a query-based technique. This technique requires that a simulation of the operational tasks be momentarily interrupted in order to query operators on their situation awareness. The results of the two studies indicate that the query technique is not intrusive on normal subject behavior during the trial and does not suffer from limitations of human memory, which provides an indication of empirical validity. The results of other validity studies regarding the technique are discussed along with recommendations for its use in measuring situation awareness in varied settings.

Situation Awareness in Team Performance: Implications for Measurement and Training:

Abstract: Situation awareness has long been recognized as an important variable in aviation performance. Research to date has focused on identifying characteristics of situation awareness for individuals, not on the behaviors and processes associated with team situation awareness. The purpose of this review is to delineate and identify characteristics of team situation awareness. In addition, implications are discussed and research questions are outlined that target the measurement and training of situation awareness in teams.

Situation Awareness and the Cognitive Management of Complex Systems

Abstract: The issue of how to support situation awareness among operators of complex systems or vehicles is a growing concern in a number of industries, especially when automation takes the operators partly ...

Situation Awareness in Anesthesiology

Abstract: Situation awareness has primarily been confined to the aviation field. We believe that situation awareness is an equally important characteristic in the complex, dynamic, and risky field of anesthesiology. We describe three aspects of situations of which the decision maker must remain aware: subtle cues, evolving situations, and special knowledge elements. We provide examples of real or simulated anesthesia situations in which situation awareness is clearly involved in the provision of optimal patient care, and we map the elements of situation awareness onto a cognitive process model of the anesthesiologist. Finally, we consider how situation awareness can be further investigated and taught in this medical domain using anesthesia simulators and analyses of real cases. The study of situation awareness in anesthesiology may provide a good example of the wider application of the concept of situation awareness to nonaerospace environments.

Method and system for the control and management of a three dimensional space envelope

Abstract: A method and system supporting seamless 3-dimensional operations in a multi-dimensional environment using orbiting satellite compatible coordinate references and databases. The system includes a control and management element and an aircraft/surface vehicle element. The two elements utilize a common worldwide coordinate reference frame and a common time reference for its operation. Precise collision detection, navigation and 3-dimensional situational awareness functions are performed using precise vector processing algorithms in combination compatible databases. Seamless air and ground operations are supported in such a fashion that the overall processing mathematics are directly applicable anywhere around the globe, only the specific databases need change for any given site. No regional distance scaling corrections or discontinuity compensations are required from site to site anywhere around the globe. Such a system greatly simplifies the operation of airports and other 4-dimensional environments. The simplicity of this system provides high availability and reduced system exposure to single point failures, while providing superior performance for air traffic controllers and aircraft/surface vehicle operators in the 3-dimensional space envelope.

Development of a situation awareness measure to evaluate advanced alarm systems in nuclear power plant control rooms

Abstract: The process controller is required to remain updated regarding developments in the dynamically changing process state, this being referred to as the maintenance of situation awareness. Alarm systems play an important role within this task, and therefore a measure of how effective the system is for enhancing the operator's situation awareness is desirable. One proposed measure is the Situation Awareness Control Room Inventory (SACRI). The methods and results of four simulator studies undertaken to develop and evaluate SACRI are outlined in this paper. It is concluded that SACRI is of use alongside measures such as detection time and diagnostic accuracy in simulator-based evaluations of alarm system design.

Experimental Analysis and Measurement of Situation Awareness

Abstract: : Situation awareness is currently a highly active area of research that has spread from the aviation community to impact on a variety of operational applications. The objective of the conference was to bring together researchers to critically evaluate the state-of-the-art in situation awareness measurement, discuss the conceptual and methodological benefits and inadequacies of different measurement approaches for different purposes and in different settings, and generate constructive recommendations needed for improving situation awareness measurement practices. The conference was the first to explicitly focus on the need for a rigorous examination of measurement techniques being used and proposed for work in this field. The objectives of the conference were to (a) bring together professionals from a variety of disciplines to critically evaluate and discuss situation awareness research, (b) critically assess the state of situation awareness measurement, (c) discuss the conceptual and methodological benefits and inadequacies of different situation awareness measurement approaches for a variety of purposes in different types of settings, and (d) generate the constructive criticism necessary to push the state of knowledge forward by developing recommendations for improving situation awareness measurement practices. Partial contents of this report include the following topics: Performance Based Measurement Techniques; Subjective Measurement Techniques; Query Techniques; Physiological Measurement Techniques; Post-Hoc and Process Assessment Techniques; Air Traffic Contral and Situation Awareness; Aircraft Systems and Situation Awareness; Complex Systems and Situation Awareness; and Individual and Team Issues in Situation Awareness. Poster topics are also provided in this publication.

Information Sharing Among Military Headquarters: The Effects on Decisionmaking

Abstract: New concepts such as network-centric operations and distributed and decentralised command and control have been suggested as technologically enabled replacements for platform-centric operations and for centralised command and control in military operations. But as attractive as these innovations may seem, they must be tested before adoption. This report assesses the effects of collaboration across alternative information network structures in carrying out a time-critical task, identifies the benefits and costs of local collaboration, and looks at how ‘information overload’ affects a system.

Training for Aviation Decision Making: The Naturalistic Decision Making Perspective:

Abstract: This paper describes the implications of a naturalistic decision making (NDM) perspective for training air crews to make flight-related decisions. The implications are based on two types of analyses: (a) identification of distinctive features that serve as a basis for classifying a diverse set of decision events actually encountered by flight crews, and (b) performance strategies that distinguished more from less effective crews flying full-mission simulators, as well as performance analyses from NTSB accident investigations. Six training recommendations are offered: (1) Because of the diversity of decision situations, crews need to be aware that different strategies may be appropriate for different problems; (2) Given that situation assessment is essential to making a good decision, it is important to train specific content knowledge needed to recognize critical conditions, to assess risks and available time, and to develop strategies to verify or diagnose the problem; (3) Tendencies to oversimplify problems may be overcome by training to evaluate options in terms of goals, constraints, consequences, and prevailing conditions; (4) In order to provide the time to gather information and consider options, it is essential to manage the situation, which includes managing crew workload, prioritizing tasks, contingency planning, buying time (e.g., requesting holding or vectors), and using low workload periods to prepare for high workload; (5) Evaluating resource requirements ("What do I need?") and capabilities ("'What do I have?" ) are essential to making good decisions. Using resources to meet requirements may involve the cabin crew, ATC, dispatchers, and maintenance personnel; (6) Given that decisions must often be made under high risk, time pressure, and workload, train under realistic flight conditions to promote the development of robust decision skills.

The Dollars and Sense of Command and Control

Abstract: : This volume includes a timely and instructive treatment of the fundamental elements of command and control and its historical usage; a solid description of command and control in operational warfare applications; and a practical approach to analyzing its contribution to creating the right balance in combining fighting elements and command and control elements into a combat force structure. Trading off investments in "shooters" versus 'radios' rarely works in favor of radios, especially with a declining budget. On the other hand, as a result of Desert Storm, in the future contingencies will be the most likely scenarios, rather than global nuclear war. Joint and combined operations are now the standard for US warfighting. Clearly, the lessons of how much combat leverage was provided by command and control systems are self-evident. The Airborne Warning and Control System, Joint Surveillance and Target Attack Radar System, Airborne Battlefield Command and Control Center, and Rivet Joint strategic reconnaissance aircraft are prime examples of leveraging combat capability. Fortunately, the build- up time to Desert Storm provided the breathing room to introduce and integrate a powerful set of command and control systems to conduct a sustained, complex air campaign with a single Air Tasking Order for all the US air components as well as the coalition air forces. The ground war didn't last long enough to test the Combined Air Land Command and Control System. Nevertheless, the lessons are there to be learned and this lucid analysis of the command and control function ought to be required reading for all service operators as well as the Joint Force Commanders and their staffs who will have to plan for future contingency operations with a much reduced warfighting force structure.

Mode S data link applications for general aviation

Abstract: The Mode S data link is a high capacity air/ground digital communications system that can deliver information to the cockpit in a form that will significantly improve pilot situational awareness and aircraft utility. The FAA is deploying Mode S surveillance sensors with data link capability at 143 sites across the United States. Three Mode S data link applications: Traffic Information Service, Text Weather Service, and Graphical Weather Service have been developed to meet the specific needs of General Aviation. Traffic Information Service uses the surveillance capability inherent in the Mode S sensor to provide the pilot with a display of nearby traffic. Text Weather Service and Graphical Weather Service provide a means to deliver real-time weather text and graphics to the cockpit. An additional Mode S data link application, the use of the Mode S quitter for Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast (ADS-B), also offers significant benefits to GA. Low-cost avionics have been developed to support these, and other Mode S data link applications for General Aviation.

4D flight guidance displays: an approach to flight safety enhancement

Abstract: The pilot's achievement of situation awareness (SA) remains a challenge for cockpit designers. Various mainly technology driven solutions were suggested to improve SA. Another approach is the integration of data and the presentation of predictive data. This approach was pursued by the development of a perspective, pictorial display format for transport aircraft. The 4D- Display and the accompanying Navigation-Display greatly enhance pilots' awareness regarding their situation relative to terrain, obstacles, aircraft in the vicinity and virtual elements. Since most of the information is contained in a graphical way, it can intuitively be seized by the observer. Especially in phases of high workload, the highly pre-processed information and its redundant and predictive presentation will significantly contribute to pilots' situation awareness. The displays were integrated into a fixed based flight simulator. Experiments with airline pilots showed that the perspective symbology reduced the pilot's workload and at the same time, improved the tracking of the demanded flight path. In order to provide the required graphics processing power for complex pictorial displays VDO-L develops a high performance symbol generator which meets the demands of prospective applications. The multi-processor system has been designed for modular avionics architectures and it provides full 2D and 3D capabilities.

Variations in "party line" information importance between pilots of difference characteristics

Abstract: The introduction of digital datalink communications into the air traffic control (ATC) system may cause a reduction of the situation awareness of flight crews due to the reduction of 'Party Line' Information (PLI) that can be overheard on the shared voice frequencies. A survey was distributed to determine current PLI use by pilots from different geographic regions, operational groups, experience levels, and aircraft equipage. Pilots indicated highest perceived importance for PLI during the phases of flight nearest the airport and lowest importance during cruise. Several specific traffic and weather information elements were identified as particularly important; traffic and weather information was also cited by pilots as information required for global situation awareness. Some variations in responses were found between pilots from different operational types.

Battle Staff Integration: The Key to Battle-Tracking in Battalion Command Posts.

Abstract: : This monograph examines the problem of battle tracking within the battalion command post. Effective battle tracking enables the battle staff to appraise the current battlefield and forecast the future battlefield for the command. Battle tracking is achieved by the integration of the staff through teamwork and an interactive flow of information within the command post. Effective battle tracking creates greater mutual situational awareness for the commander and staff and thus reduces the amount of uncertainty when making decisions in the execution of tactical operations. The commander can then focus combat power effectively to accomplish assigned missions. Staff integration offers a solution to the problem of inefficient battle tracking. Through the propagation of staff integration over time, a staff will develop cohesion, an interactive flow of information and the capability of sharing images of the battlefield. These capabilities enable the battle staff to attain mutual situational awareness of the battlefield and the ability to track the execution of tactical operations effectively. Thus, by achieving integration the battle staff is able to achieve unity of action and reduce uncertainty for the commander during the execution of tactical operations.

Emergency (911) Dispatcher Decision Making: Ecological Display Development

Abstract: Emergency dispatchers must make complex life or death decisions under extreme time pressure. Using Ecological Task Analysis (ETA), a technique normally applied to aerospace human factors problems, a new display was designed that would better assist their decision making task. The major design constraints were identified to be the beat number and priority of incidents, available units, and the spatial relationship of the those units to the incident. Using these and other less formal factors, a GUI interface was designed and an evaluation was conducted at the Richmond, CA police dispatch center. The results suggest that the GUI display may reduce training times and increase situational awareness.

Situation awareness and human performance in target recognition

Abstract: Human performance in complex systems often depends upon the integration of visual, contextual and automated information. In this paper we discuss the relationship between situation awareness and operators' use of visual and automated information for target recognition decisions. In a pilot experiment in which we systematically manipulated situational context, we found that subjects increase their false-alarm rate when they expect a high density of enemy targets. The results suggest the importance of designing displays that accurately portray situational information.

Airborne Reconnaissance: The Leveraging Tool for Our Future Strategy.

Abstract: : Information, in the form of intelligence will be a critical element of our national power in future conflicts. One specific form of intelligence collection, airborne reconnaissance, can provide exceptional leverage for our future force structure. A strategy to task analysis, beginning with our national security strategy, produces some very specific missions for our reconnaissance architecture. From these tasks, or missions, flow the requirements for our reconnaissance systems. Our current reconnaissance architecture, however, has some critical requirement shortfalls from both a warfighter and systems perspective. Some of these shortfalls include the limited ability to locate mobile threats, the lack of all-weather, day/night capability, and the inability to monitor large areas for long periods of time. To correct these shortfalls, we must first analyze how reconnaissance can provide total situational awareness for our forces. Fusion of sensors and rapid dissemination of intelligence data are the keys to this awareness. Before we reach total or dominant battlefield awareness, however, major changes must occur in the current airborne reconnaissance architecture. Besides consolidating the myriad of duplicate systems, we must also look at ways to effectively integrate the new endurance unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) into our future reconnaissance structure. (MM)

Analyzing situation awareness during wayfinding in a driving simulator

Abstract: Learning a route through an unfamiliar area requires an ongoing awareness of one's position in the world The authors investigated how subjects established this "situation awareness" in a driving simulator After learning a route, subjects' visual and spatial abilities were tested by having them follow the route in a world with altered landmarks They found that subjects used one of two different ways to orient themselves One group of subjects relied almost exclusively on visual scene recognition, being aware of their position only at decision points along the route The other group, in contrast, used a more spatial representation of their environment, being aware of their position between decision points as well

Situation Awareness and Older Workers

Abstract: Since 1900, there has been a "graying of America", with the average age of the population steadily rising. Older adults (over age 65) now comprise over 13% of the population, as compared to 4% in 1900, and this number is projected to be 20% by the year 2030 (Moody, 1994). During the next two decades, population growth will be concentrated among those individuals over the age of 50 as the baby boomers will become senior citizens. Along with this shift in the population structure is an increasing concern with the capabilities of and problems faced by older adults, especially given that a decrease in the size of the workforce and changing retirement practices may lead to greater levels of employment of older adults than seen in the past. Although typically studied in younger adults, we would like to argue that the study of Situation Awareness (SA) may be a useful way of assessing the specific problems faced by older workers. Obviously, SA is just as important for older and middle-aged adults as it is for younger individuals and future research in SA needs to address these populations. This is especially true now that SA work is being conducted outside of the military, such as in nuclear power plants and air traffic control towers, where the subject population is likely to be more heterogeneous and SA acquisition in older adults may be more of a concern. We would also like to argue that the study of SA is not just useful for work-related activities, but in everyday situations as well. For example, SA is as important to the older adult trying to cross a busy street as it is to a young pilot trying to shoot down the enemy. In both situations a life may be lost, but good SA could lead to more positive outcomes. Thus, the formation of SA may be critical to continued well-being and adaptive functioning in older adults. The study of aging and SA may present unique problems to researchers. Presently, most of the theoretical work on SA and its measurement methods rely on studies in which the subject population consists either entirely of college students or young military pilots. Due to cognitive changes that may begin occurring during the middle years of a person's lifetime, however, both the formation and assessment of SA could be affected. Age-related changes in cognitive capabilities and experience may force us to examine current operationalizations of SA and their applicability to different age groups. It is the goal of this paper to examine aging-related cognitive changes that may affect a persons' ability to acquire SA. Whereas we will not address specific SA measurement methodologies, much of what we have to say will have implications

AutoCAR—a decision support tool for freeway traffic controllers

Abstract: An important part of road traffic operations is the ability to locate and resolve congestion-causing traffic incidents as quickly as possible. The provision of appropriate decision support tools which help maintain this form of situation awareness is therefore mandated. This paper describes the overall architecture and design of one such tool. AutoCAR (Automated Congestion Analysis & Report) is an object-oriented, rule-based expert system which incorporates some concepts from catastrophe theory to help differentiate between demand-based and incident-based traffic congestion.

NPSNET: software requirements for implementation of a sand table in the virtual environment

Abstract: : The problem this thesis addresses is the lack of current computer applications which allow 3D graphical visualization and manipulation of abstract control measures during military planning. 3D depiction of a battle plan is needed to reduce ambiguity in planning and provide a clearer depiction of a commander's actual intent. The approach taken was to build a networked Virtual Environment Sand Table. The system was built using NPSNET for 3D visualization and manipulation of control measures and ModSAF for the management of the measures. The result of this thesis was the implementation of a Virtual Environment Sand Table in NPSNET. The system enables the creation and manipulation of control measures in a networked 3D Virtual Environment. The system provides intuitive visualization of control measures overlaid on Virtual Terrain. Incorporating these features into a planning tool in a Virtual Environment makes battle planning more effective and increases situational awareness by allowing expression and depiction of abstract concepts and ideas in a shared medium.

Sensor-based situational awareness as a hazard paradigm for optimization of ATC systems design

Abstract: This paper discusses a systems engineering approach to design and implementation of Air Traffic Control Systems (ATCS). Preservation of situational awareness by optimum use of available sensors is used as a unifying paradigm for airspace structural design which yields significant increases in reliability of operation as measured by the potential to detect collisions and effect avoidance. Strategic and tactical data required for continuous situational awareness is dependent on efficient and timely capture of sensor information. Analytical relationships between airspace structure and sensor search and acquisition functions were mathematically related. The reliability of ATCS airspace structures as mission critical components and probability of failure of these functions are derived. Modelling is used to show strong interdependencies between visual acquisition, cruising rule and tactical communications. The limitations of various airspace structures in use are identified. System reliability is baselined against well-known acceptance standards. Improvements of five orders of magnitude in performance and reliability are demonstrated with flow on effects to the reliability of overall ATCS design. The sensor paradigm is used to postulate an extension to current separation criteria and facilitate identification of fundamental failure modes for ATCS design. New flow model criteria enabling critical airspace structures, performance and geographic areas to be identified by simulation or real time performance monitoring are identified thus enabling quantitative measures required to baseline and improve system performance. The paper concludes by showing how modelling/real time monitoring can be used to predict system trends and capacity problems well in advance of actual system failure.

Explanatory tool for decision support on data-fused panoramic cockpit displays

Abstract: Data-fused panoramic displays are currently being developed to provide decision support to military pilots in air-to-air combat environments. This paper reports the findings from a series of studies conducted using simulated data-fused explanatory displays. The displays provided explanations, rather than advice, in an endeavor to keep the pilot in the decision loop while improving the accuracy and/or speed of his mission-critical decisions. In addition to the basic display of the threat type, speed and direction (the control condition), three forms of explanatory displays were presented: text only, graphics only, and text and graphics (redundant). These displays provided information regarding the hostile aircraft's missile engagement zones and success envelopes. For effective human-system interaction, an appropriate level of operator trust is required. A critical determinant of trust is the transparency of the system interface, which should allow the operator to assess the system's accuracy. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the issues of trust and transparency of the different display formats used in the decision support system. Participants were asked to identify the highest threat posed by three hostile aircraft in an air combat scenario in the first experiment, and to assess whether explanations generated for a single hostile aircraft were correct or incorrect in the second. The scenarios, which were designed to present real-world decision tasks, were developed through discussions with RAF aircrew. Low trust was found to have a negative impact on decision-making and situational awareness, with subjects in the low trust condition making fewer correct decisions and reporting lower levels of subjective situational awareness than subjects in the high trust condition. Decision-making with low trust was particularly impaired in the test only condition. Poorer memory for hostile aircraft was observed where explanations were provided, compared to the control condition, in which no explanations were provided. The inability of subjects to identify erroneous textural explanations suggested a lack of transparency in the textual explanations. These results are discussed with regard to the implications of the different display formats for decision-making and situational awareness with data- fused cockpit displays.

The Effects of Structured Arrival and Departure Procedures on TRACON Air Traffic Controller Memory and Situational Awareness.

Abstract: : Air traffic control (ATC) is conducted by men and women of the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) air traffic service. Controllers do an excellent job of keeping aircraft separated and safe. However, they do make mistakes. Many of these errors are caused by the limitations of working memory, which controllers continuously use to maintain situational awareness (SA) An experiment was conducted at the FAA Technical Center Human Factors Laboratory to examine the potential benefits of a memory aiding concept on controller performance, SA, and workload. The advanced use of Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) and Standard Instrument Departures (SIDs) were selected as the memory aids for testing. These specially-designed STARs and SIDs were intended to simplify the controller's task and allow more time for planning and monitoring aircraft. A new high-fidelity ATC simulator was used which allowed controllers to work under extremely realistic conditions. Sixteen controllers from Atlantic City TRACON participated and worked scenarios consisting of low and high traffic volumes both with and without the memory aids. Controllers' actions and aircraft data were recorded during each scenario and used to evaluate ATC performance. Other evaluation methods included the Air Traffic Workload Input Technique and a modification of the Situational Awareness Global Assessment Technique. The results indicated that the memory aids decreased both the number of ground-to-air transmissions and handoff errors. Controller workload and SA were primarily determined by the traffic volume and were not affected by the memory aids. A final debriefing with controllers suggested several ways the memory aids and SA technique could be improved.

Human-computer interface design

Abstract: Modern military forces assume that computer-based information is reliable, timely, available, usable, and shared. The importance of computer-based information is based on the assumption that {open_quotes}shared situation awareness, coupled with the ability to conduct continuous operations, will allow information age armies to observe, decide, and act faster, more correctly and more precisely than their enemies.{close_quotes} (Sullivan and Dubik 1994). Human-Computer Interface (HCI) design standardization is critical to the realization of the previously stated assumptions. Given that a key factor of a high-performance, high-reliability system is an easy-to-use, effective design of the interface between the hardware, software, and the user, it follows logically that the interface between the computer and the military user is critical to the success of the information-age military. The proliferation of computer technology has resulted in the development of an extensive variety of computer-based systems and the implementation of varying HCI styles on these systems. To accommodate the continued growth in computer-based systems, minimize HCI diversity, and improve system performance and reliability, the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) is continuing to adopt interface standards for developing computer-based systems.