Showing papers on "Soybean oil published in 1989"

The Effects of Dietary α-Linolenic Acid on the Composition of Nerve Membranes, Enzymatic Activity, Amplitude of Electrophysiological Parameters, Resistance to Poisons and Performance of Learning Tasks in Rats

Abstract: Feeding rats diets containing oils that have a low alpha-linolenic acid [18:3(n-3)] content, such as sunflower oil, results in reduced amounts of docosahexaenoic acid [22:6(n-3)] in all brain cells and organelles compared to rats fed a diet containing soybean oil or rapeseed oil. During the period of cerebral development there is a linear relationship between the n-3 fatty acid content of the brain and that of food until alpha-linolenic acid represents approximately 200 mg/100 g food [0.4% of the total dietary energy for 18:3(n-3)]. Beyond that point brain levels reach a plateau. Similar values are also found for other organs. The level of 22:6(n-3) in membranes is little affected by the dietary quantity of linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)] if 18:3(n-3) represents approximately 0.4% of energy. In membranes from rats fed diets containing sunflower oil, Na+, K(+)-ATPase activity in nerve terminals was 60%, 5'-nucleotidase in whole brain homogenate was 80%, and 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase was 88% of that in membranes from rats fed diets containing soybean oil. A diet low in alpha-linolenic acid leads to anomalies in the electroretinogram, which partially disappear with age. It has little effect on motor activity, but it seriously affects learning tasks as measured with the shuttle box test. Rats fed a diet low in alpha-linolenic acid showed an earlier mortality in response to an intraperitoneal injection of a neurotoxin, triethyltin, than did rats fed a normal soybean oil diet.

Effects of processing steps on the contents of minor compounds and oxidation of soybean oil

Abstract: The processes of degumming, alkali refining, bleaching and deodorization removed 99.8% phospholipids, 90.7% iron, 100% chlorophyll, 97.3% free fatty acids and 31.8% tocopherols from crude soybean oil. The correlation coefficient between the removals of phosphorus and iron in soybean oil during processing was r = 0.99. The relative ratios of α-, β -, γ- and δ-tocopherols in crude oil, degummed oil, refined oil, bleached oil and deodorized soybean oil were almost constant, γ- and δ -tocopherols represented more than 94% of tocopherols in soybean oil. The order of oxidation stability of oil is crude > deodorized > degummed > refined > bleached oil.

Brain cell and tissue recovery in rats made deficient in n-3 fatty acids by alteration of dietary fat.

Abstract: Rats were fed a purified diet containing either 1.5% sunflower oil [940 mg linoleic acid [18:2(n-6)]/100 g diet; 6 mg alpha-linolenic acid [18:3(n-3)]/300 g diet] or 1.9% soybean oil [940 mg 18:2(n-6)/100 g diet; 130 mg 18:3(n-3)/100 g diet]. In all cases and tissues examined 22:6(n-3) was lower and 22:5(n-6) was higher in rats fed sunflower oil than in rats fed soybean oil. Levels of 22:4(n-6) and 20:4(n-6) were largely unaffected. Expressed as a percentage of that in soybean oil-fed rats, 22:6(n-3) in sunflower oil-fed rats was as follows: neurons, 49; astrocytes, 47; oligodendrocytes, 10; lung, 27; testes, 32; retina, 36; liver, 35 and kidneys, 45. Ten wk after the change in diet of 60-d-old rats from one containing sunflower oil to one containing soybean oil, the fatty acid composition of the brain cells had not reached control values, e.g., that obtained in animals continuously fed soybean oil; 22:6(n-3) was 77, 65 and 80% of control levels for astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and neurons, respectively. In contrast, the recovery measured by the decay of 22:5(n-6) was complete within 10 wk. For 22:6(n-3), it took approximately 2 wk for liver and kidney to recover to the control value, 3 wk for lung, 6 wk for retina and 10 wk for testes. The decrease of 22:5(n-6) was rapid: the control values were reached within 2 wk for kidney, liver and lung and within 6 wk for retina.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Effect of dietary palm oils on mammary carcinogenesis in female rats induced by 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene.

Abstract: Female Sprague-Dawley rats, 50 days of age, were treated with a single dose of 5 mg of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene intragastrically. 3 days after carcinogen treatment, the rats were put on semisynthetic diets containing 20% by weight of corn oil (CO), soybean oil (SBO), crude palm oil (CPO), refined, bleached, deodorized palm oil (RBD PO) and metabisulfite-treated palm oil (MCPO) for 5 months. During the course of experiments, rats fed on different dietary fats had similar rate of growth. Rats fed 20% CO or SBO diet have higher tumor incidence than rats fed on palm oil (PO) diets; however differences of mean tumor latency periods among the groups were not statistically significant. At autopsy, rats fed on high CO or SBO diets had significantly more tumors than rats fed on the three PO diets. Our results showed that high PO diets did not promote chemically induced mammary tumorigenesis in female rats when compared to high CO or SBO diets. CO and SBO differ greatly from the palm oils in their contents of tocopherols, tocotrienols, and carotenes. But further experiments would be required to determine whether the observed differences in tumor incidence and tumor numbers were due to the differences in these minor components or due to the unique triglyceride structure of the palm oils. Analysis of the fatty acid profiles of plasma total lipids of tumor-bearing rats and of the tumor total lipids showed that, with the exception of arachidonic acid, the fatty acid profiles reflect the nature of the dietary fats. At autopsy, there were no differences in the plasma total cholesterol contents among rats fed on different dietary fats, but rats fed on palm oil diets had a significantly higher plasma triglyceride level than that of rats fed CO or SBO diets. As for the tumor lipids, there were no significant differences in the triglyceride, diglyceride, and phospholipid levels when the CO or SBO groups were compared to the palm oil groups.

Flavor and oxidative stability of soybean, sunflower and low erucic acid rapeseed oils

Abstract: Three samples each of soybean, sunflower and low erucic acid rapeseed (LEAR) oils were evaluated for flavor and oxidative stability. The commercially refined and bleached oils were deodorized under identical conditions. No significant differences were noted in initial flavor quality. After storage at 25°C or 60°C in the dark, soybean oils—with or without citric acid—were more stable than either sunflower or LEAR oils. However, in the presence of citric acid, soybean oils were significantly less stable to light exposure than either LEAR or sunflower oils. In contrast, in the absence of citric acid, soybean oils were significantly more light stable than LEAR oils. In either the presence or absence of citric acid, sunflower oil was significantly more stable to light than soybean oil. Analyses by static headspace gas chromatography showed no significant differences in formation of total volatile compounds between soybean and LEAR oils. However, both oils developed significantly less total volatiles than the sunflower oils. Each oil type varied in flavor and oxidative stability depending on the oxidation method (light vs dark storage, absence vs presence of citric acid, 100°C vs 60°C).

Oxidative stability of seed oils extracted with supercritical carbon dioxide.

Abstract: Dry-milled corn germ, soybean and cottonseed flakes were extracted (at 70-90 C and 12,000 psi) with supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2) to yield crude oils. Oxidative stability of the crude oils was determined and compared to similar products obtained by conventional expeller and/or prepress solvent extraction. Under Schall oven storage conditions (60 C), SC-CO2-extracted oils undergo rapid deterioration and fail to show the normal induction period observed with conventional expeller and solvent-extracted crude oils. The levels of tocopherols found in SC-CO2-extracted oils are comparable to those obtained by expeller or solvent extraction, while phospholipids present in significant amounts in conventional crude oils are essentially absent from SC-CO2-processed crudes. The addition of phosphatides to SC-CO2-extracted crude oils improves oxidative stability, which suggests that both tocopherols and phospholipids are required to stabilize crude oils against autoxidation. Heating of SC-CO2-extracted crude oils to deodorization temperatures improves oxidative stability. The destruction of fat hydroperoxides under these conditions probably accounts for improved oxidative stability. A combination of heat and the addition of citric acid and phenolic antioxidants resulted in further improvement of oxidative stability.

Kinetics of oxirane cleavage in epoxidized soybean oil

Abstract: The kinetics of oxirane ring cleavage in epoxidized soybean oil have been studied using glacial acetic acid at 60, 70, 80 and 90°C. It was shown that the reaction can be successfully modelled as first order with respect to the epoxide concentration and second order with respect to acetic acid. The reaction velocity constant at 70°C was found to be 2 × 10−3 1−3 hr−1 mol−2, the frequency factor, A, = 2.321 × 107 hr−1 and the energy of activation, Ea = 15.84 k cal mol−1. The effects of the concentration of acetic acid and the temperature on the net yield of epoxides by in situ epoxidation were also studied on the basis of the predicted kinetic parameters of the reaction system.

Polymorphic behavior of some fully hydrogenated oils and their mixtures with liquid oil

Abstract: Fully hydrogenated soybean oil, beef fat, rapeseed oil, a rapeseed, palm and soybean oil blend, cottonseed oil and palm oil were characterized by fatty acid composition, glyceride carbon number and partial glyceride content, as well as melting and crystallization properties. The latter were established by differential scanning calorimetry. Polymorphic behavior was analyzed by X-ray diffraction of the products in the flake or granulated form and when freshly crystallized from a melt. The hard fats were dissolved in canola oil at levels of 20, 50 and 80% and crystallized from the melt. Palm oil had the lowest crystallization temperature and the lowest melting temperature; rapessed had the highest crystallization temperature and soybean the highest melting temperature. All of the hard fats crystallized initially in the =00 form. When diluted with canola oil, only palm oil was able to maintain β′ stability.

Identification of Efficacious Adjuvants for Sethoxydim and Bentazon

Abstract: Experimental adjuvants were tested to maximize herbicidal activity of sethoxydim on quackgrass and of bentazon on common lambsquarters. Efficacious adjuvants were identified by measuring the 14C-herbicide droplet spread and absorption, as influenced by various adjuvants, on the target weed. The absorption and droplet spreadability of sethoxydim and bentazon on quackgrass and common lambsquarters leaves were increased or were decreased depending on the type of adjuvant used. No correlation was found between sethoxydim droplet spread and absorption on quackgrass. With bentazon, the relationship between these two factors was greater. Thus, measurement of droplet spread, as affected by adjuvants, was useful only as a screening technique for bentazon. Blending surfactants with paraffinic oil or soybean oil to form a crop oil concentrate changed the efficacy of the surfactant compared to the surfactant by itself. Surfactants most effective as components of paraffinic-oil based crop oil concentrate were different from surfactants ideal for inclusion with soybean oil-based crop oil concentrate. Thus, the effectiveness of a crop oil concentrate depends on herbicide, surfactant, and oil types. In the field, several of the superior adjuvants identified in the laboratory enhanced sethoxydim and bentazon activity on grass and broadleaf weeds.

Effect of Dietary Vitamin E on the Toxicity of Autoxidized Oil to Rats

Abstract: Tocopherol, one of the antioxidants in vegetable fats and oils, was added to the autoxidized diet of male rats at the same tocopherol level as soybean oil before autoxidation. Autoxidized soybean oil was used as the test lipid; fresh soybean oil was the control. The diet containing autoxidized oil depressed the body weight gains and increased the tissue ratios to body weight, with the exception of testicle. Parallel with those, increased hemolysis, peroxide value and carbonyl value in the tissue lipids, and a decrease in linoleic or arachidonic acid was observed. The effect of dietary vitamin E on the tissue lipid peroxidation was different among the individual organs. From the results obtained by chemical analyses, the lipid peroxidation caused in the liver, heart and intestine was recognized to be suppressed effectively when the same tocopherol level as fresh soybean oil was added to the diet.

Adjuvant for dose treatment with antigens

Abstract: Therapeutic effectiveness of antigen doses is improved by an adjuvant comprised of a mixture of lecithin in combination with a carrier which may be selected from the group consisting of non-edible oils such as mineral oil and edible triglyceride oils such as soybean oil.

Effect of Extrusion on Lipid Oxidation

Abstract: To examine extrusion temperature effects on oil stability, corn meal/ starch with soybean oil was extruded, frozen immediately in liquid nitrogen, freeze-dried and ground. The conjugable oxidation products (COP), oxodiene values (OV), peroxide values (PV) and conjugated dienes were determined during storage. There was an increase in COP, OV, PV, and conjugated dienes with an increase in extrusion temperature. An increase in transition metal content, particularly iron, occurred with an increase in extrusion temperature. Starch and soybean oil were extruded with 50 ppm ferrous acetate (dry weight) and 50 ppm butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) (oil weight). Ferrous acetate reduced the oxidation relative to the control, which contained neither antioxidant nor iron, and relative to the sample containing BHA.

Isolation and characterization of dinners formed in used soybean oil

Abstract: Dimers were isolated from two samples of partially hydrogenated soybean oil which had been used for frying. They were then separated into their component structures using an LC-18 octadecyl bonded, HPLC column with acetone-acetonitrile (1:1, v/v) as the mobile phase with refractometry as the mode of detection and identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Evidence is presented for the presence of the monohydroxy, dihydroxy, and keto groups in the dimer of linoleic acid as well as the dehydrodimer, the bicyclic, the tricyclic, and the thermal dimer of methyl linoleate and the dehydrodimer of methyl oleate.

Effects of dietary fatty acid composition on macronutrient selection and synaptosomal fatty acid composition in rats.

Abstract: Our previous work showed that rats consuming 20% (wt/wt) lard diets selected more protein and less carbohydrate than did rats fed 20% (wt/wt) soybean oil diets. To determine if this effect is specific to saturated fat source and to measure changes in fatty acid composition of synaptosomal phospholipids, male Wistar rats were fed a 20% (wt/wt) soybean oil or tallow diet with 24% protein and 48% carbohydrate for 2 wk. Rats then self-selected from two diets with the same fat previously fed but different protein and carbohydrate composition (5% protein, 67% carbohydrate and 55% protein, 17% carbohydrate). Tallow-fed rats selected more protein and less carbohydrate than did soybean oil-fed rats. Dietary fat also affected fatty acid composition of synaptosomal phospholipids, phosphatidylcholine being most affected and phosphatidylinositol most resistant. Later studies determined if selection differences were due to taste. When rats self-selected without prior exposure to diets, tallow-fed rats selected more protein and less carbohydrate than did soybean oil-fed rats during the last 2 wk but not the first 2 wk. When rats selected from diets with identical protein and carbohydrate composition but different dietary fat, rats consumed slightly greater amounts of the tallow diet at each protein level. The relative intake of tallow and soybean oil diets, however, did not vary significantly with dietary protein treatment. These results confirm that rats fed saturated fat diets select more protein and less carbohydrate than do rats fed polyunsaturated fat diets and suggest this difference is not due to taste factors.

High linolenic acid mutant in soybean induced by X-ray irradiation

Abstract: Soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr. cv. Bay] seeds were irradiated with X-rays (25kR) and the M2 progeny was screened for changes in the fatty acid composition of seed oil. X-ray irradiation remarkably increased the variability of the fatty acid composition in the oil of the Bay cultivar. A mutant in which linolenic acid accounted for 18.4 per cent of the total oil cornpared with 9.4 per cent in the Bay cultivar was identified among 2006 M2 plants. The M3 generation of the mutant also showed a linolenic acid content approximately two times higher than that of the original variety.

Isolation, growth characteristics, and long-term storage of fungi cultivated by attine ants.

Abstract: Seven pure-culture strains of fungi cultivated by attine ants (ant-garden fungi) were isolated from locally maintained leaf-cutting ant colonies. An ant-garden fungus strain obtained from an Atta cephalotes colony, when offered to ants of the colony from which the fungus was isolated, was accepted as their own. Young fungus cultures were harvested and incorporated into the fungus garden, and cultures of intermediate age were used to begin a new fungus garden; old cultures were simply harvested. To facilitate further research on this fungus, growth characteristics of the different isolates were studied under a variety of conditions. They grew better at 24°C than at 30°C, and growth did not occur at an incubation temperature of 37°C. In a broth culture medium, growth was enhanced by aeration of the culture and by addition of yeast extract, olive oil, sesame oil, peanut oil, soybean oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, cottonseed oil, walnut oil, safflower oil, or mineral oil. Glycerol did not noticeably affect growth, but Tween 80 inhibited growth. These fungi were extremely sensitive to cycloheximide, growth being totally inhibited at cycloheximide concentrations ranging from 0.4 to 4.0 μg/ml. To date, the ant-garden fungus isolates have remained viable in long-term mineral oil-overlay storage cultures for up to 4 years.

Effects of filtering through bleaching media on decrease of peroxide value of autoxidized soybean oil

Abstract: The effects of filtering through bleaching media on decrease of peroxide value (PV) of autoxidized soybean oil were investigated to improve its quality. Sixteen kinds of filtering and bleaching media were employed. The standard activated clay was the most effective in decreasing the peroxides in autoxidized soybean oil. The relations between the decrease of PV and the physical or the chemical properties of the media were examined. It was found that peroxides are reduced in proportion to the amount of acid at the highest acid strength range + 1.5–5.6 rather than amount of acid at the lower acid strength range, total amount of acid or specific surface area of medium.

Catalytic behavior of palladium in the hydrogenation of edible oils II. Geometrical and positional isomerization characteristics

Abstract: The geometrical isomerization characteristics of 5% Pd/alumina were investigated using response surface methodology. From the response surface, it was observed as expected that moretrans isomers were formed at lower pressures and higher temperatures. A doubling of the metal concentration from 50 to 100 ppm resulted in a small increase in isomerization in soybean oil, while for canola oil the same increase had a larger effect, especially at lower pressures. Similarly, an increase in temperature increases geometrical isomerization, especially at lower pressures, but the effect is more pronounced for canola than for soybean oil. Positional isomers were determined by oxidative ozonolysis in BF3-MeOH and subsequent GLC analysis. Higher pressures suppressed positional isomerization. The effect of various catalyst supports on positional isomerization was also investigated.

Allergenicity of Food Proteins Interacted with Oxidized Lipids in Soybean-sensitive Individuals

Abstract: The allergenicity of proteins interacted with oxidized lipids was examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using sera from soybean-sensitive individuals. Though oxidized soybean oil did not show any allergenicity, the IgE titer of sera from soybean-sensitive patients was greatly increased when oxidized soybean oil was incubated with soybean 2S-globulin. The IgE titer of patient sera became higher when greater amounts of oxidized soybean oil were used. Little difference was noted in the ELISA value of protein interacted with oxidized soybean oil when soybean 2S-globulin was replaced by other food proteins. A similar tendency was noted when soybean oil was replaced by other vegetable oils or fatty acids. These results clearly show that proteins interacted with oxidized lipid are allergenic to soybean-sensitive patients.

The mechanism of color reversion in soybean salad oil

Abstract: An enzymatic reaction might be the major cause of color reversion in soybean oil. During the soybean flaking process, enzymatic reactions take place to convertγ-tocopherol to 5-(tocopheryloxy)-γ-tocopherol (γ-TED), and then further convertγ-TED to the precursors which are the cause of color reversion. The variations ofγ-tocopherol andγ-TED contents in soybean oil are accompanied by an inverse change in the precursors’ concentration. Therefore, the contents ofγ-tocopherol orγ-TED in crude soybean oil could be used as an index for predicting the color quality (color reversion) of soybean salad oil. Almost all the precursors (such as tocored) were converted to color-reverted substances under catalysis after bleaching treatment, and they were converted back to the precursors during deodorization. Those precursors might be gradually reconverted into the color reverted substances during storage to cause the color reversion in soybean salad oil.

Effects of Protein and Carbohdyrate Sources on Digestibility and Digesta Flow Rate in Weaned Pigs Fed a High-Fat, Dry Diet

Abstract: Two trials were conducted to evaluate the effects of protein source (48% CP soybean meal or casein) and carbohydrate source (25% dextrose or 25% lactose) on digestibility and digesta flow rate in early-weaned pigs. Diets contained 10% crude soybean oil and were formulated to contain 3.5 g lysine, 2.3 g Ca and 2.0 g P per 1,000 kcal DE of diet. In Trial 1, nutrient digestibility was greater for older than for younger pigs. Apparent digestibilities for energy, DM, CP and fat were lower (P less than .08) for younger and older pigs fed soybean meal rather than casein. Digestibility of soluble carbohydrates was less (P less than .02) for younger pigs fed soybean meal rather than casein as a protein source. Fat digestibility was lower (P less than .05) in younger pigs fed dextrose than in pigs fed lactose. A protein X carbohydrate source interaction (P less than .01) existed for fat digestibility by older pigs. In Trial 2, pigs were euthanatized, and digestibilities anterior to the ileum and the colon (pre-ileal and pre-cecal) were determined. At the ileum, fat digestibility was lower (P less than .05) for pigs fed soybean meal, whereas CP digestibility was lower (P less than .05) for pigs fed either soybean meal or dextrose. A protein X carbohydrate interaction was observed for ileal digestibilities of DM (P less than .06) and total carbohydrates (P less than .03) with lowest values obtained for the soybean meal plus dextrose diet. For casein diets, digestibility values were similar between the two carbohydrate sources.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Fixed-Bed Continuous Hydrogenation of Soybean Oil With Palladium-Polymer Supported Catalysts

Abstract: To compare a continuous hydrogenation system with batch hydrogenation, soybean oil was treated with Pd and Ni catalysts in a fixed-bed system under conditions that gave trickle flow. The influence of processing variables such as space velocity, pressure, temperature and hydrogen flow on the selectivity, specific isomerization and the activity was investigated. Both the Pd and Ni catalysts gave significantly lower specific isomerization(trans isomer per drop in Iodine Value) when compared to reported values for batch hydrogenation with similar type catalysts. The linolenate and linoleate selectivities were also significantly lower. Heterogenized homogeneous Pd-on-polystyrene catalyst gave lower specific isomerization formation and higher selectivity than carbon-supported Pd catalyst at same conditions. This work indicates that Pd-on-styrene, Pd-on-carbon and extruded Ni catalysts, in fixed-bed continuous hydrogenation can produce soybean oil of desirable composition after further optimization.

Non-emulsion-type foaming aerosol composition

Abstract: PURPOSE: To obtain a foam aerosol composition excellent in both detergency and properties in use and having good stability by mixing a liquid oil component, a solid oil component, and a propellant. CONSTITUTION: A non-emulsified foam aerosol composition comprising a liquid oil component (A), a solid oil component (B), and a propellant. Examples of the component (A) include those that are liquid at ordinary temperature, such as a liquid oil or fat (e.g. soybean oil), a hydrocarbon (e.g. liquid paraffin), a higher alcohol fatty acid (e.g. oleic acid), a higher alcohol (e.g. lauryl alcohol), a silicone (e.g. methylpolysiloxane), and an ester (e.g. isopropyl palmitate). The amount of the component (A) to be incorporated is preferably 30-89.99wt.% based on total stock solution. Examples of the component (B) include those that are solid at ordinary temperature, such as a wax (e.g. carnauba wax), a hydrocarbon, a fatty acid, and an aliphatic alcohol. The component (B) accounts for at least 0.1wt.% of total stock solution. As the propellant, those usually used for aerosol products can be employed, preferably in an amount of 3-90wt.%. COPYRIGHT: (C)1991,JPO&Japio

Factors influencing phospholipid adsorption on silica from soybean oil miscella.

Abstract: Phospholipids can be removed from crude soybean oil miscellas by adsorption on silica. The adsorption is not complete even though the silica has not been saturated. Micelle formation and calcium salts of phospholipids were ruled out as causes for the incomplete adsorption pattern, and competition for adsorption sites by triglyceride was judged to be the likely cause.

Rapid analysis of vegetable oil flavor quality by dynamic headspace capillary gas chromatography

Abstract: A rapid capillary gas Chromatographic headspace technique using a multiple purge and trap system was developed and applied for the determination of vegetable oil flavor quality. Oil volatiles were purged at 150°C for 20 min, collected over a Tenax trap and subsequently desorbed and reconcentrated in a series of two smaller traps. From the gas Chromatographic profile, three compounds, t-2-heptenal, t-2-octenal and t,t-2, 4-decadienal were selected for computation of the flavor score of individual oil samples. Analysis of the flavor quality of soybean oil by this technique demonstrated a very good correlation to the traditional sensory evaluation procedure. Good correlation was also observed for the flavor evaluation of corn oils. Precision, based on multiple analyses of known standard aldehydes, was shown to be better than 6%. The degree of Chromatographic efficiency obtained by this multiple concentration technique permitted the use of a short 25-min Chromatographic run in the resolution of these aldehydes of interest. This approach reduced the overall analysis time of existing instrumental oil flavor techniques significantly.