Showing papers on "Student engagement published in 2003"

Sense of Relatedness as a Factor in Children's Academic Engagement and Performance.

Abstract: Children’s sense of relatedness is vital to their academic motivation from 3rd to 6th grade. Children’s (n 641) reports of relatedness predicted changes in classroom engagement over the school year and contributed over and above the effects of perceived control. Regression and cumulative risk analyses revealed that relatedness to parents, teachers, and peers each uniquely contributed to students’ engagement, especially emotional engagement. Girls reported higher relatedness than boys, but relatedness to teachers was a more salient predictor of engagement for boys. Feelings of relatedness to teachers dropped from 5th to 6th grade, but the effects of relatedness on engagement were stronger for 6th graders. Discussion examines theoretical, empirical, and practical implications of relatedness as a key predictor of children’s academic motivation and performance. When explaining motivational dynamics in school, psychologists frequently point to differences in children’s underlying beliefs and capacities. Decades of research show that children’s self-perceptions, such as self-efficacy, goal orientations, or autonomy, are robust predictors of motivation and performance in school, both concurrently and over many years (for reviews, see Eccles, Wigfield, & Schiefele, 1998; Stipek, 2002). At the same time, however, researchers note the centrality of social factors in children’s motivation (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 1985; Eccles et al., 1998; Goldstein, 1999; Juvonen & Wentzel, 1996; Resnick et al., 1997; Weiner, 1990). Research from multiple traditions demonstrates the impact on children’s motivation and learning of relationships with parents (Steinberg, Darling, & Fletcher, 1995), teachers (Stipek, 2002), and peers (Hymel, Comfort, Schonert-Reichl, & McDougall, 1996). Recently, these two general lines of thinking, one about selfperceptions and one about interpersonal relationships, have converged in the study of the motivational consequences of children’s sense of self in relationships. Studied under a variety of labels, such as social cognitive views of motivation (Weiner, 1990), internal working models (Bretherton, 1985), relationship representations (Ryan, Stiller, & Lynch, 1994), classroom climate (Anderson, 1982), and perceived social support (Wentzel, 1999), the core notion is that a history of interactions with specific social partners leads children to construct generalized expectations about the nature of the self in relationships. Also referred to as a sense of relatedness (Connell, 1990), connectedness (Weiner, 1990), or belonging (Goodenow, 1993), these organized self-system processes include views about the self as lovable (or unworthy of love) and about the social world as trustworthy (or hostile). Children rely on these beliefs when predicting, interpreting, and responding to social exchanges, and these exchanges can in turn be used to confirm or revise children’s beliefs. A sense of relatedness may function as a motivational resource when children are faced with challenge or difficulties. In times of stress, children who experience trusted others as “backing them up” respond with more vigor, flexibility, and constructive actions. A sense of relatedness is the focus of the present study. Building on the growing body of work on the role of relationship representations, we attempted to explore the effects of a sense of relatedness, both generally and toward specific social partners, on children’s academic motivation and performance during middle childhood.

What We're Learning About Student Engagement From NSSE: Benchmarks for Effective Educational Practices

Abstract: (2003). What We're Learning About Student Engagement From NSSE: Benchmarks for Effective Educational Practices. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning: Vol. 35, No. 2, pp. 24-32.

Student engagement in high school classrooms from the perspective of flow theory.

Abstract: We present a conceptualization of student engagement based on the culmination of concentration, interest, and enjoyment (i.e., flow). Using a longitudinal sample of 526 high school students across the U.S., we investigated how adolescents spent their time in high school and the conditions under which they reported being engaged. Participants experienced increased engagement when the perceived challenge of the task and their own skills were high and in balance, the instruction was relevant, and the learning environment was under their control. Participants were also more engaged in individual and group work versus listening to lectures, watching videos, or taking exams. Suggestions to increase engagement, such as focusing on learning activities that support students’ autonomy and provide an appropriate level of challenge for students’ skills, conclude the article.

The role of self-efficacy beliefs instudent engagement and learning intheclassroom

Abstract: Student motivation is an important concern for all teachers. Recent research on student motivation has provided evidence for the development of important constructs and generalizations that have direct application to the classroom. Although there are many motivational constructs, self-efficacy is one that is key to promoting students' engagement and learning. Self-efficacy is discussed in terms of how it may facilitate behavioral, cognitive, and motivational engagement in the classroom. Specific suggestions for teacher practice are also provided.

Black American Students in An Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement

Abstract: John Ogbu has studied minority education from a comparative perspective for over 30 years. The study reported in this book--jointly sponsored by the community and the school district in Shaker Heights, Ohio--focuses on the academic performance of Black American students. Not only do these students perform less well than White students at every social class level, but also less well than immigrant minority students, including Black immigrant students. Furthermore, both middle-class Black students in suburban school districts, as well as poor Black students in inner-city schools are not doing well. Ogbu's analysis draws on data from observations, formal and informal interviews, and statistical and other data. He offers strong empirical evidence to support the cross-class existence of the problem. The book is organized in four parts: *Part I provides a description of the twin problems the study addresses--the gap between Black and White students in school performance and the low academic engagement of Black students; a review of conventional explanations; an alternative perspective; and the framework for the study. *Part II is an analysis of societal and school factors contributing to the problem, including race relations, Pygmalion or internalized White beliefs and expectations, levelling or tracking, the roles of teachers, counselors, and discipline. *Community factors--the focus of this study--are discussed in Part III. These include the educational impact of opportunity structure, collective identity, cultural and language or dialect frame of reference in schooling, peer pressures, and the role of the family. This research focus does not mean exonerating the system and blaming minorities, nor does it mean neglecting school and society factors. Rather, Ogbu argues, the role of community forces should be incorporated into the discussion of the academic achievement gap by researchers, theoreticians, policymakers, educators, and minorities themselves who genuinely want to improve the academic achievement of African American children and other minorities. *In Part IV, Ogbu presents a summary of the study's findings on community forces and offers recommendations--some of which are for the school system and some for the Black community. Black American Students in an Affluent Suburb: A Study of Academic Disengagement is an important book for a wide range of researchers, professionals, and students, particularly in the areas of Black education, minority education, comparative and international education, sociology of education, educational anthropology, educational policy, teacher education, and applied anthropology.

Student engagement at school : a sense of belonging and participation : results from PISA 2000

Abstract: FOREWORD Most students participate in academic and non-academic activities at school, and develop a sense of belonging – their friends are there, they have good relations with teachers and other students, and they identify with and value schooling outcomes. But many students are not engaged. They do not believe their school experience has much bearing on their future, and they do not feel accepted by their classmates or teachers. Gradually these students withdraw from school life, and become disaffected from school. Some disaffected students are disruptive in class, and exert a negative influence on other students. Can we meet the needs of students who have become disaffected from school? Can we identify schools that have high levels of student engagement, and if so, what factors contribute to their success? What is the relationship between student engagement and academic performance? These questions are of great concern to educators around the world. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) offers a unique opportunity to study student engagement across several countries as students approach the end of compulsory schooling. The data collected in PISA include information on students' attitudes and values, as well as reliable and valid data on students' literacy skills. The data also include information on students' family backgrounds and on several features of the schools they were attending. This report examines several questions concerning students' participation and sense of belonging. These two aspects of student engagement are considered important, not only because of their relationship with student learning, but also because they represent a disposition towards schooling and lifelong learning. The results indicate that there is considerable variation among countries in their levels of student engagement and in the prevalence of disaffected students. Moreover, the prevalence of disaffected students varies considerably within and among schools within most countries, and this variation is not attributable solely to students' family background. The results also provide evidence that literacy performance and student engagement do not necessarily go hand-in-hand; in most countries there is a significant number of students with a strong literacy performance who are nevertheless disaffected from school. The analyses also identify some of the school factors related to engagement, and provide evidence that achieving strong student engagement at school does not have to be at the expense of their reading performance. PISA is a collaborative effort, bringing together scientific expertise from the participating countries, steered jointly by their governments on …

Retaining minority students in higher education : a framework for success

Abstract: Foreword.Acknowledgments.Postsecondary Opportunity.The Growing Importance of a College Degree.Moving from Access to Success.Diagnosis by the Numbers: The Education Pipeline for Racial and Ethnic Minorities.Diversity 101: Affirmative Action in America.Why Students Leave College.Models of Student Progression.Factors Related to Retention.A Framework for Retention.A New Perspective on Student Integration.Three Forces Affecting Student Persistence and Achievement.The Model in Practice.Practical Implications of the Geometric Model.A Framework for Student Retention.Monitoring Students' Progress.Implementation and Leadership.Important Organizational Considerations in Developing an.Institution-Wide Retention Program Implementing Campus-Wide Programs.The Importance of Leadership on Student Retention.Final Thoughts.Appendix A: Promising College Student Retention Programs.Appendix B: Annotated Bibliography.References.Name Index.Subject Index.

The Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners

Abstract: List of Figures, Tables, and Exhibits.Preface.About the Authors.PART ONE: A PROFILE OF THE VIRTUAL STUDENT.1. Who Is the Virtual Student?2. The Student Side of Online Learning Communities.3. Learning Styles.4. Gender, Culture, Lifestyle, and Geography.5. What the Virtual Student Needs 51PART TWO: A GUIDE TO WORKING WITH THE VIRTUAL STUDENT: ISSUES, CONCERNS, AND STRATEGIES.6. Designing a Good Student Orientation.7. Time and Commitment.8. Assessment and Evaluation.9. Legal Issues and the Virtual Student.10. Attrition, Retention, and Group Size.11. Becoming Truly Learner-Focused: Best Practices in Online TeachingRESOURCES: THE TOOLKIT FOR A SUCCESSFUL ONLINE STUDENT.Introduction to the Toolkit for a Successful Online Student.Resource A: Faculty Tools.Resource B: Student Tools.References.Index.

Self-Efficacy, Goal Orientation, and Fear of Failure as Predictors of School Engagement in High School Students.

Abstract: Lack of school engagement among adolescents in this country remains a problem that can have very serious consequences including increased risk for school dropout, substance use, teenage pregnancy, and criminal activity. Clearly, identification of psychological variables (self-variables) of individuals that facilitate or hinder adolescents' levels of school engagement would contribute greatly to the understanding of how to increase adolescents' psychological well-being and their achievement motivation and associated school engagement. The present study examined the degree of association of three specific self-variables (self-efficacy, goal orientation, and fear of failure) with school engagement for high school students. The results and implications for intervention and future research are addressed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 40: 417–427, 2003.

The “Why’s” of Class Size: Student Behavior in Small Classes

Abstract: Small classes in the elementary grades have been shown to boost students’ academic performance. However, researchers continue to seek a consistent, integrated explanation of “why” small classes have positive effects. This article forwards the hypothesis that when class sizes are reduced, major changes occur in students’ engagement in the classroom. Engagement is composed of “learning behavior” and pro- and antisocial behavior. Both are highly related to academic performance. We first review research on the relationship between class size and student engagement. Second, we review sociological and psychological theory about the behavior of individuals in groups to explain how student behavior can be affected by changes in class size. Both theory and empirical findings support our hypothesis, although additional research is required. High-priority questions needing further research are identified in the conclusion.

Student Evaluation of Teaching Effectiveness: An assessment of student perception and motivation

Abstract: Over the past century, student ratings have steadily continued to take precedence in faculty evaluation systems in North America and Australia, are increasingly reported in Asia and Europe and are attracting considerable attention in the Far East. Since student ratings are the most, if not the only, influential measure of teaching effectiveness, active participation by and meaningful input from students can be critical in the success of such teaching evaluation systems. Nevertheless, very few studies have looked into students' perception of the teaching evaluation system and their motivation to participate. This study employs expectancy theory to evaluate some key factors that motivate students to participate in the teaching evaluation process. The results show that students generally consider an improvement in teaching to be the most attractive outcome of a teaching evaluation system. The second most attractive outcome was using teaching evaluations to improve course content and format. Using teaching ev...

Transactional Presence as a Critical Predictor of Success in Distance Learning

Abstract: This paper argues that, apart from interactive activities, the perceptions of psychological presence that distance education students hold of their teachers, peer students, and the institution can ...

Looking at Student Work for Teacher Learning, Teacher Community, and School Reform:

Abstract: Teachers are usually alone when they examine student work and think about student performance. The authors describe several projects that have enabled teachers to leave the isolation of their own classrooms and think together about student work in the broader contexts of school improvement and professional development. IN 1995, WHEN the California Center for School Restructuring convened teams from nearly 150 elementary and secondary schools to examine the progress of local school reform and its impact on student achievement, it employed the slogan "Examining student work for what matters most."1 The precise meaning of the slogan was left open for school teams to define. For some, it meant assembling and examining school-level achievement data. For others, it meant using rubrics to assess student essays, projects, or portfolios. For still others, it meant considering samples of student work for their instructional implications or inviting a panel of students to speak about their opportunities to learn. The years that have passed since that conference testify to a growing conviction that there is something important to be learned by giving close attention to students' experience and students' actual work. Reform advocates, professional developers, school accreditation agencies, teacher networks, and researchers have increasingly engaged teachers in looking together at samples of student work or analyzing classroom performance.2 Indeed, "looking at student work" has become the organizing theme of one website (www.lasw.org) and a prominent component of several others.3 It forms a major activity of professional conferences, professional development programs, and reform projects. One might reasonably ask, "What's new about teachers looking at student work?" Teachers examine artifacts produced by students all the time. They read, review, grade, and celebrate student work every day. However, they do so most often on their own, possibly in conference with a student or parent, but almost always in isolation from colleagues. In recent years, organizations engaged in professional development and school reform have begun bringing teachers together to do collectively what they generally do alone: that is, look at student work and think about students' performance in the classroom. In addition to evaluating a teacher's instructional relationships with individual students, the purpose of these collaborative efforts is to foster teacher learning, support for professional community, and the pursuit of school reform. These organizations have also focused on introducing these practices into the ongoing work of schools. In this regard, they have ventured into difficult terrain. It was one thing for California's restructuring schools to gather once a year at a conference to examine student work. It is quite another to transform long-standing workplace traditions of privacy and non-interference by asking teachers to put the work of their own students on the table for others to consider and discuss. We have recently completed a two-year study that responds directly to this growing interest in looking at student work. In reviewing published descriptions and studies, we discovered a wide range of purposes and practices subsumed under the broad descriptive term "looking at student work." The good news for advocates of these practices is that there is emerging evidence that some versions of looking at student work yield benefits for teaching and learning.4 However, the available research gives little sense of how any demonstrated benefits might in fact be achieved.5 While there are promising precedents, the literature offers few specifics regarding the actual practices that teachers employ in looking at student work. Our project attempted to make some headway on that problem. Through case studies of teacher groups working with three nationally recognized organizations -- Harvard Project Zero, the Coalition of Essential Schools, and the Academy for Educational Development -- we sought to identify specific practices employed by teachers who come together to examine student work in the context of broader programs of school improvement and school-based professional development. …

The Effect of Undergraduate Student Involvement on Critical Thinking: A Meta-Analysis of the Literature 1991-2000

Abstract: A meta-analysis of eight studies from 1991 to 2000 determined the effect of Greek life, clubs and organizations, faculty interaction, peer interaction, living on campus, and employment on critical thinking. Students involved in these activities experienced a .14 gain in critical thinking compared to students who were not involved.

College Student Responses to Web and Paper Surveys: Does Mode Matter?.

Abstract: We examined the responses of 58,288 college students to 8 scales involving 53 items from the National Survey of Student Engagement (NSSE) to gauge whether individuals respond differently to surveys administered via the Web and paper. Multivariate regression analyses indicated that mode effects were generally small. However, students who completed the Web-based survey responded more favorably than paper on all 8 scales. These patterns generally held for both women and men, and younger and older students. Interestingly, the largest effect was found for a scale of items involving computing and information technology.

To produce or not to produce? Understanding boredom and the honor in underachievement

Abstract: This study explores factors contributing to the boredom of gifted high school students who had gradually disengaged from classroom learning. Evidence from three case studies provides a rich sense of the complexities of this process. The core findings: (1) learning is the opposite of boredom, and (2) learning is the antidote to boredom. Five interdependent features emerged from the interviews that distinguished boring from learning experiences: control, choice, challenge, complexity and caring teachers. The extent to which these five C's were present determined the extent of students’ engagement and productivity. Participants attributed their increasing boredom to a gradual decline in the five C's in middle and high school. They reported a growing sense of moral indignation toward the activities they were offered as an “education.” They felt the honorable action in response to an inappropriate curriculum was to disengage from it and quit producing. It is recommended that interventions designed to re‐engage...

Service-Learning and Engagement, Academic Challenge, and Retention

Abstract: Tinto (1993) proposed a model of institutional retention and departure to explain why college students persist in their studies or leave the university before obtaining their degrees. According to this model, persistence is affected by the extent to which students become integrated into both social and academic aspects of the college or university. Summarizing his own and others' research, Tinto concluded that students who are more academically and socially engaged in their colleges and communities are more likely to continue study until graduation. Braxton, Sullivan, and Johnson (1997) note that service-learning offers the conditions identified in Tinto's theory as most likely to facilitate developing meaningful connections between students, faculty, and community that will result in retention. The present study investigated the extent to which service-learning increases students' engagement with their studies, the university and community, and the likelihood of their continuing studies at the university (retention). Service-learning has been found to enhance a student's engagement with the community outside of the university. Service-learning participants, in comparisons with other students, have reported greater understanding of community problems (Astin & Sax, 1998), greater knowledge and acceptance of diverse races and cultures (Astin & Sax; McKenna & Rizzo, 1999), and a greater ability to get along with people of different backgrounds (Astin & Sax; McKenna & Rizzo). Students who participate in service-learning have shown significant increases in the belief that they could make a difference (Eyler & Giles, 1994), greater valuing of and commitment to future volunteer service (Eyler & Giles; Markus, Howard, & King, 1993; McKenna & Rizzo), and plans to become involved in helping careers (Markus et al., 1993). While many studies report positive effects of service-learning on community engagement, Eby (1998) suggests that service-learning could produce negative outcomes under some conditions. He points out that poorly planned service-learning may individualize social issues, de-emphasizing structural components and causes, and thereby reinforce students' views that community members are deficient. On the same note, service-learning can exaggerate the volunteer's importance, ignoring resources within the community. Thus, Eby cautions, an inadequately planned and organized experience might actually reinforce students' stereotypic thinking and increase their perceived distance from the community. Assessment of students' learning about the community must be a core component of service-learning program evaluation. Service-learning can affect students' academic engagement, as well. In some studies, academic engagement is measured by student reports; in others, engagement is inferred from the grades students receive. For example, positive effects on academic attitudes have been shown by McKenna and Rizzo (1999), who found that students reported service-learning's positive impact on their acquisition and understanding of course concepts. Similarly, Moely, McFarland, Miron, Mercer, and Ilustre (2002) found that students reported higher learning levels about the field of study of their service-learning courses. Eyler and Giles (1999) found that more than 58% of service-learning students in their national survey felt they had learned more in their service-learning classes than in their other classes. Several studies (Balazadeh, 1996; Markus et al., 1993; Sugar & Livosky, 1988) reported that students who took part in service-learning earned higher course grades than those students who did not. Findings for grades are not entirely consistent, as other studies (Miller, 1994; Kendrick, 1996) have reported no differences between the academic engagement of service learners and nonservice learners. In the present study, academic engagement was measured by asking students to report on their own perceived involvement with the course content and field of study. …

Dissonance in Experience of Teaching and its Relation to the Quality of Student Learning

Abstract: Several recent studies on student learning in higher education reported on 'dissonant' forms of contextualised learning engagement. The focus of the present study is on 'dissonant' forms of teaching and their relation to student learning. This relatively large--scale research programme involved surveys of approximately 8829 students and 408 university teachers across 51 different units of study. The data were analysed using a combination of cluster and factor analyses. In units of study in which students report a higher quality learning experience (deep approaches to learning and perceptions of the learning environment that afford such approaches), the relationship between approaches to teaching and perceptions of the teaching context are consonant and coherent for the more senior teachers. In units of study in which students report a lower quality learning experience (surface approaches and perceptions affording such approaches), the relationship between approaches to teaching and perceptions of the teac...

Facilitating Student Engagement: Lessons Learned from Check & Connect Longitudinal Studies

Abstract: Lessons learned from years of applied research in the area of student engagement, dropout prevention and school completion are offered. This article begins with a summary of theoretical constructs that guided the development of Check & Connect and continues with descriptions of multiple applications of this targeted intervention. The roles of key personnel are identified and seven core elements of the model are highlighted including the importance of “persistence plus,” relationship building and individualized intervention. Considerations for effective implementation, derived from the experiences of longitudinal implementation studies, are discussed. These insights are offered for consideration to those who are in positions to influence the educational trajectory of youth for whom school completion is likely to be difficult.

The Role of the Academic Library in Promoting Student Engagement in Learning

Abstract: This study examines the nature and value of undergraduate students’ experiences with the academic library. The data represent responses from more than 300,000 students between 1984 and 2002 to the College Student Experiences Questionnaire. Although library use did not appear to make independent contributions to desirable outcomes of college, such experiences were related to important educationally valuable activities. Because the emphasis a campus places on information literacy is a strong predictor of students becoming information literate, librarians should redouble their collaborative efforts to promote the value of information literacy and help create opportunities for students to evaluate the quality of the information they obtain.

The effect of using team learning in an evidence-based medicine course for medical students.

Abstract: Background: We implemented team learning, an instructional method that fosters small-group learning, in an evidence-based medicine (EBM) course. Our goal was to align instructional methods with EBM practices. Description: Team learning provides an alternative to lectures in large-group settings. It involves out-of-class preparation followed by in-class readiness assurance tests and group application activities. We used the method to teach a 7-week course in EBM for 2nd-year students. We evaluated the course using student performance, external observation, and student focus groups. Evaluation: Students performed well on all written assignments, indicating attainment of learning objectives. Observation data revealed a high level of student engagement in the classroom. Focus group data indicated that desired learning behaviors tended to occur but that many students devalued the method. Conclusion: Team learning served as a useful framework, enabling a large enrollment course to have small-group experiences w...

The relationship between institutional mission and students' involvement and educational outcomes

Abstract: Although institutional characteristics are assumed to influence student learning and intellectual development, this link has not been confirmed empirically. This study examined whether institutional mission, as represented by Carnegie classification, is related to student learning and development. After controlling for student background characteristics, no meaningful differences were found in students' perceptions of the college environment, levels of academic and social involvement, integration of information, or educational outcomes by Carnegie classification.

Multiple Contexts of School Engagement: Moving Toward a Unifying Framework for Educational Research and Practice

Abstract: This article discusses the school engagement literature and offers a conceptual framework with the intention of developing a common terminology to more efficiently organize research and practice. Three distinct perspectives are outlined in relation to school engagement: psychological, educational, and developmental. Four main contexts of school-based engagement are identified, including the student, peers, classroom, and the school environment. Although some researchers have focused on students at risk for negative developmental outcomes, the proposed model postulates that all youth benefit from school engagement. Overall, the intent of this new framework is to support efforts to promote positive student outcomes, increase psychosocial competence and efficacy, and promote life-long learning.

Student learning in physical education : applying research to enhance instruction

Abstract: Overview of the field addressing the needs of diverse students promoting student learning promoting valued outcomes and attitudes learning to teach - an on-going process.

Changes in Attitudes Toward Women's Roles: Predicting Gender-Role Traditionalism among College Students:

Abstract: National college student data derived from the 1996 Cooperative Institutional Research Program Freshman Survey and the 2000 College Student Survey were used to assess longitudinal changes in gender-role traditionalism across 4 years of college. Applying the Input–Environment–Outcome model to blocked stepwise regression analyses, the predictive value of students' precollege characteristics and predispositions, and various college environments and experiences, were assessed for men and women. Findings indicated that students' levels of traditionalism declined during college. Although men and women tended to change similarly on this dimension, women held more egalitarian views than did men at college entry and 4 years later. Regression results pointed to the relevance of peers, academic engagement, women's studies courses, and diversity experiences for students' gender-role attitudes 4 years after college entry.

How Nine Third-Grade Teachers Motivate Student Academic Engagement

Abstract: Nine grade 3 teachers in 8 Catholic schools were observed and interviewed, and student work was collected to determine how the teachers motivated students. Engagement varied dramatically between some classes, covarying with motivating elements of instruction. Engaging teachers did much to motivate their students and little that might undermine academic motivation. Teachers were classified into 3 levels: low, moderately, and highly engaging. In the 3 classrooms characterized by low engagement, teachers were observed to use many practices that undermined motivation. The 4 moderately engaging teachers used many potentially motivating practices in their classrooms but assigned tasks that were low in difficulty. Teachers in the 2 highly engaging classrooms used many potentially motivating practices and required students to complete tasks that were appropriately, cognitively challenging (i.e., students could do them with some effort).