The semiconductor ZnO has gained substantial interest in the research community in part because of its large exciton binding energy (60meV) which could lead to lasing action based on exciton recombination even above room temperature. Even though research focusing on ZnO goes back many decades, the renewed interest is fueled by availability of high-quality substrates and reports of p-type conduction and ferromagnetic behavior when doped with transitions metals, both of which remain controversial. It is this renewed interest in ZnO which forms the basis of this review. As mentioned already, ZnO is not new to the semiconductor field, with studies of its lattice parameter dating back to 1935 by Bunn [Proc. Phys. Soc. London 47, 836 (1935)], studies of its vibrational properties with Raman scattering in 1966 by Damen et al. [Phys. Rev. 142, 570 (1966)], detailed optical studies in 1954 by Mollwo [Z. Angew. Phys. 6, 257 (1954)], and its growth by chemical-vapor transport in 1970 by Galli and Coker [Appl. Phys. ...

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A comprehensive review of zno materials and devices

We present a comprehensive, up-to-date compilation of band parameters for the technologically important III–V zinc blende and wurtzite compound semiconductors: GaAs, GaSb, GaP, GaN, AlAs, AlSb, AlP, AlN, InAs, InSb, InP, and InN, along with their ternary and quaternary alloys. Based on a review of the existing literature, complete and consistent parameter sets are given for all materials. Emphasizing the quantities required for band structure calculations, we tabulate the direct and indirect energy gaps, spin-orbit, and crystal-field splittings, alloy bowing parameters, effective masses for electrons, heavy, light, and split-off holes, Luttinger parameters, interband momentum matrix elements, and deformation potentials, including temperature and alloy-composition dependences where available. Heterostructure band offsets are also given, on an absolute scale that allows any material to be aligned relative to any other.

Band parameters for III–V compound semiconductors and their alloys

In the past ten years we have witnessed a revival of, and subsequent rapid expansion in, the research on zinc oxide (ZnO) as a semiconductor. Being initially considered as a substrate for GaN and related alloys, the availability of high-quality large bulk single crystals, the strong luminescence demonstrated in optically pumped lasers and the prospects of gaining control over its electrical conductivity have led a large number of groups to turn their research for electronic and photonic devices to ZnO in its own right. The high electron mobility, high thermal conductivity, wide and direct band gap and large exciton binding energy make ZnO suitable for a wide range of devices, including transparent thin-film transistors, photodetectors, light-emitting diodes and laser diodes that operate in the blue and ultraviolet region of the spectrum. In spite of the recent rapid developments, controlling the electrical conductivity of ZnO has remained a major challenge. While a number of research groups have reported achieving p-type ZnO, there are still problems concerning the reproducibility of the results and the stability of the p-type conductivity. Even the cause of the commonly observed unintentional n-type conductivity in as-grown ZnO is still under debate. One approach to address these issues consists of growing high-quality single crystalline bulk and thin films in which the concentrations of impurities and intrinsic defects are controlled. In this review we discuss the status of ZnO as a semiconductor. We first discuss the growth of bulk and epitaxial films, growth conditions and their influence on the incorporation of native defects and impurities. We then present the theory of doping and native defects in ZnO based on density-functional calculations, discussing the stability and electronic structure of native point defects and impurities and their influence on the electrical conductivity and optical properties of ZnO. We pay special attention to the possible causes of the unintentional n-type conductivity, emphasize the role of impurities, critically review the current status of p-type doping and address possible routes to controlling the electrical conductivity in ZnO. Finally, we discuss band-gap engineering using MgZnO and CdZnO alloys.

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Fundamentals of zinc oxide as a semiconductor

We present a comprehensive and up-to-date compilation of band parameters for all of the nitrogen-containing III–V semiconductors that have been investigated to date. The two main classes are: (1) “conventional” nitrides (wurtzite and zinc-blende GaN, InN, and AlN, along with their alloys) and (2) “dilute” nitrides (zinc-blende ternaries and quaternaries in which a relatively small fraction of N is added to a host III–V material, e.g., GaAsN and GaInAsN). As in our more general review of III–V semiconductor band parameters [I. Vurgaftman et al., J. Appl. Phys. 89, 5815 (2001)], complete and consistent parameter sets are recommended on the basis of a thorough and critical review of the existing literature. We tabulate the direct and indirect energy gaps, spin-orbit and crystal-field splittings, alloy bowing parameters, electron and hole effective masses, deformation potentials, elastic constants, piezoelectric and spontaneous polarization coefficients, as well as heterostructure band offsets. Temperature an...

Band parameters for nitrogen-containing semiconductors

We present a review of current research on the optical properties of ZnO nanostructures. We provide a brief introduction to different fabrication methods for various ZnO nanostructures and some general guidelines on how fabrication parameters (temperature, vapor-phase versus solution-phase deposition, etc.) affect their properties. A detailed discussion of photoluminescence, both in the UV region and in the visible spectral range, is provided. In addition, different gain (excitonic versus electron hole plasma) and feedback (random lasing versus individual nanostructures functioning as Fabry-Perot resonators) mechanisms for achieving stimulated emission are described. The factors affecting the achievement of stimulated emission are discussed, and the results of time-resolved studies of stimulated emission are summarized. Then, results of nonlinear optical studies, such as second-harmonic generation, are presented. Optical properties of doped ZnO nanostructures are also discussed, along with a concluding outlook for research into the optical properties of ZnO.

Optical properties of ZnO nanostructures.

In the fourth part of this series, we study the impact of lateral inhomogeneities on the time-resolved luminescence decay (TRL) after a pulsed excitation by means of simulation with Synopsys® TCAD and analytical approximation. This work consists of two parts: In the first part, the effect of excitations being inhomogeneous on a lateral scale is investigated. It turns out that for localized excitations there may be a strong lateral diffusion of charge carriers, thereby limiting the resolution of a micro-TRL experiment. In this case, a replacement of the inhomogeneous excitation in the simulation by a homogeneous excitation and an average photon density is not possible, especially due to defect saturation depending non-linearly on the excitation. In the second part, we consider a homogeneous excitation and study inhomogeneous material parameters, namely, inhomogeneous charge carrier lifetimes, band gaps, and doping densities. We find that their effects strongly depend on their characteristic lengths of vari...

Theoretical study of time-resolved luminescence in semiconductors. IV. Lateral inhomogeneities

A direct correlation of structural properties with the spatial distribution of bound exciton luminescence in ZnO epitaxial layers has been achieved on a microscopic scale using highly spatially and spectrally resolved cathodoluminescence. The morphology of the high quality ZnO layer is characterized by a distinct domain structure. While the laterally integrated cathodoluminescence spectrum shows narrow (full width at half maximum <3meV) I8 luminescence, a pronounced emission line at I0∕I1 emerges in the local spectra taken at domain boundaries. In complete contrast, no I0∕I1 emission is found inside the domains. Monochromatic images further evidence the selective incorporation of impurities at the grain boundaries of domains. Micro mappings of the I8 peak wavelength directly visualize the strain relaxation across the domains toward their very center, where a drop in quantum efficiency indicates enhanced defect concentration.

Direct evidence for selective impurity incorporation at the crystal domain boundaries in epitaxial ZnO layers

Spatial distribution of extended defects in semipolar (11¯01)-oriented GaN layers grown on patterned (001) Si substrates with striped grooves of varying width was investigated by optical means only using near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) and cathodoluminescence (CL). A high density of basal and prismatic stacking faults was observed in the c− wings, and the threading dislocations in c+ wings, which appear as dark patterns in the NSOM and CL images, were found to bend toward the surface during the initial stages of growth. In the case when growing c+ front of GaN made contact with the SiO2 masking layer during growth, stacking faults were found to form also in the c+ wings. These additional stacking faults effectively blocked propagation of dislocations along the c+ direction, resulting in high quality stripes virtually free of defects. As revealed by optical means only without the need for any structural investigation, such control over the threading dislocation density using select growth geo...

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Microscopic distribution of extended defects and blockage of threading dislocations by stacking faults in semipolar (11¯01) GaN revealed from spatially resolved luminescence

Color‐Tunable 3D InGaN/GaN Multi‐Quantum‐Well Light‐Emitting‐Diode Based on Microfacet Emission and Programmable Driving Power Supply

Epitaxial laterally overgrown GaN (ELOG) structures are microscopically characterized using spatially resolved microphotoluminescence (micro-PL) and time-dependent spectroscopy. To understand the influence of the different lateral growth mechanisms on the peak position and the temporal behavior of the transition lines, we correlated the different micro-PL emission spectra with results of spatially resolved time-dependent spectroscopy experiments.

http://www.ifkp.tu-berlin.de/fileadmin/i1/hoffmann/publikationen/paper/Ho_214.pdf

Frank Bertram

Papers

Theoretical study of time-resolved luminescence in semiconductors. IV. Lateral inhomogeneities

Direct evidence for selective impurity incorporation at the crystal domain boundaries in epitaxial ZnO layers

Microscopic distribution of extended defects and blockage of threading dislocations by stacking faults in semipolar (11¯01) GaN revealed from spatially resolved luminescence

Color‐Tunable 3D InGaN/GaN Multi‐Quantum‐Well Light‐Emitting‐Diode Based on Microfacet Emission and Programmable Driving Power Supply

Time-resolved microphotoluminescence of epitaxial laterally overgrown GaN