Graphene is a rapidly rising star on the horizon of materials science and condensed-matter physics. This strictly two-dimensional material exhibits exceptionally high crystal and electronic quality, and, despite its short history, has already revealed a cornucopia of new physics and potential applications, which are briefly discussed here. Whereas one can be certain of the realness of applications only when commercial products appear, graphene no longer requires any further proof of its importance in terms of fundamental physics. Owing to its unusual electronic spectrum, graphene has led to the emergence of a new paradigm of 'relativistic' condensed-matter physics, where quantum relativistic phenomena, some of which are unobservable in high-energy physics, can now be mimicked and tested in table-top experiments. More generally, graphene represents a conceptually new class of materials that are only one atom thick, and, on this basis, offers new inroads into low-dimensional physics that has never ceased to surprise and continues to provide a fertile ground for applications.

The rise of graphene

There is, I think, something ethereal about i —the square root of minus one. I remember first hearing about it at school. It seemed an odd beast at that time—an intruder hovering on the edge of reality.

Usually familiarity dulls this sense of the bizarre, but in the case of i it was the reverse: over the years the sense of its surreal nature intensified. It seemed that it was impossible to write mathematics that described the real world in …

I and i

다중혈관 관상동맥 환자에서 y-문합을 이용하여 양쪽 내흉동맥만을 사용한 우회술의 조기 성적

This article reviews the basic theoretical aspects of graphene, a one-atom-thick allotrope of carbon, with unusual two-dimensional Dirac-like electronic excitations. The Dirac electrons can be controlled by application of external electric and magnetic fields, or by altering sample geometry and/or topology. The Dirac electrons behave in unusual ways in tunneling, confinement, and the integer quantum Hall effect. The electronic properties of graphene stacks are discussed and vary with stacking order and number of layers. Edge (surface) states in graphene depend on the edge termination (zigzag or armchair) and affect the physical properties of nanoribbons. Different types of disorder modify the Dirac equation leading to unusual spectroscopic and transport properties. The effects of electron-electron and electron-phonon interactions in single layer and multilayer graphene are also presented.

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The electronic properties of graphene

抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Zirconium containing coatings deposited by reactive sputtering on molybdenum surfaces were analysed by means of X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (ESCA) and electron-induced X-ray emission (EDAX), with an emphasis on zirconium carbide creation. For comparison ZrC layers deposited by cataphoresis were investigated. The results show that while EDAX is useful for bulk analysis of heavy atom contaminants, chemical state information vital for the reactive deposition processes is only obtained through ESCA. The spectra indicate that reactively sputtered zirconium leads to appreciable amounts of ZrC in the films only under special reaction conditions; if these are not present, unreacted Zr coatings are found, which transform to ZrO2 upon exposure to air. By monitoring the chemically shifted Zr 3d peaks the reaction conditions in the sputtering process which are favourable for ZrC deposition were determined.

Characterization of layers produced by a reactive deposition technique: An EDAX and ESCA study

1 Research Institute of Electrical Communications, Tohoku University, 2-1-1 Katahira, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8577, Japan Phone:+81-22-217-5484 E-mail : fukidome@riec.tohoku.ac.jp 2 JASRI/SPring-8, 1-1-1 Kouto, Sayo-cho, Sayo-gun, Hyogo 679-5148, Japan 3 CREST, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Tokyo 107-0075, Japan 4 Lehrstuhl für Technische Physik, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erwin-Rommel-Str. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany 5 School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-01 Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan 6 Department of Molecular Physics, Fritz-Harber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesselschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany, 7 Graduate School of Science and Technology, Hirosaki University, Aomori, 036-8561, Japan

Tuning of Structural and Electronic properties of Epitaxial Graphene by Substrate Microfabrication

Detailed experimental studies of the electronic structure of the valence and conduction bands of the mixed conductor β-LiAl indicate that a quasi-gap opens at the Fermi level, and the conduction states are highly localized, as opposed to the theoretical band structure calculations that predict predominant metallic behavior. Evidence for complex lithium migration effects involving the surface of LiAl, induced by particle (electron or ion) bombardment, and mechanical treatment, has been obtained as a by-product of these experiments.

Electronic Structure, Bonding, and Lithium Migration Effects Involving the Surface of the Mixed Conductor β-LiAi

We have investigated epitaxial graphene films grown on SiC(0001) by annealing in an atmosphere of Ar instead of vacuum. Using AFM and LEEM we observe a significantly improved surface morphology and graphene domain size. Hall measurements on monolayer graphene films show a carrier mobility of around 1000 cm/Vs at room temperature and 2000 cm/Vs at 27K. The growth process introduced here establishes the synthesis of graphene films on a technologically viable basis.

Karsten Horn

Papers

Characterization of layers produced by a reactive deposition technique: An EDAX and ESCA study

Tuning of Structural and Electronic properties of Epitaxial Graphene by Substrate Microfabrication

Electronic Structure, Bonding, and Lithium Migration Effects Involving the Surface of the Mixed Conductor β-LiAi

Atmospheric Pressure Graphitization of SiC(0001) - A Route Towards Wafer-Size Graphene Layers.

Effects of barrier height inhomogeneity on semiconductors core level photoemission line shape