Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

/pdf/the-what-and-why-of-goal-pursuits-human-needs-and-the-self-9g2lmfmhmg.pdf

The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations ( N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%--60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%--52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2634758.pdf

A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies

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Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.

Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.

stimuli and tasks it is known that verbal, visual and combined verbal-visual implementation intention formats are equally effective (e.g., Burkard, Rochat, & Van der Linden, 2013; McFarland & Glisky, 2012; Meeks & Marsh, 2010). However, in everyday life settings using richer stimuli (e.g., food products) implementation intentions effects can indeed be augmented by visualizing the plan contents (e.g., Knäuper et al., 2011; Knäuper, Roseman, Johnson, & Krantz, 2009). For instance, Knäuper et al. (2011) investigated the effectiveness of implementation intentions in increasing fruit consumption. After asking participants to form standard verbal implementation intentions, the authors encouraged them to visualize the critical cues (e.g., seeing fruits at the cafeteria) and the cue-response links (e.g., taking and eating fruits when they are encountered). This verbal-visual implementation intention induction was observed to be more effective in increasing fruit consumption than the standard verbal implementation intention, indicating that consumers benefit from visualizing cues and responses in addition to formulating an if-then plan. Granted that visualizing plan contents enhances the effectiveness of implementation intentions, one right wonder whether the visualization of cues and responses may already lead to the formation of if-then plans. Fennis, Adriaanse, Stroebe and Pol (2011) examined this question by presenting participants with a webpage advocating the usage of a pocketguide listing fair-trade products to facilitate sustainable consumption. Importantly, the webpage described different situational cues (e.g., writing a shopping list, putting products in the shopping basket) and also provided an instrumental means (i.e., using the pocket-guide to check whether a product is fair-trade) without ever providing a verbal if-then plan. Nevertheless, the authors observed that a vivid description of the plan contents strengthened the accessibility of situational and response cues (e.g., "shopping list", "checking") and resulted in more actual purchases of sustainable products. These results are promising because they indicate that implementation intentions can be conveyed to consumers even when an explicit instruction to form if-then plans is impracticable. Mentally contrasting wishes and obstacles Forming implementation intentions has mainly been studied as a self-regulation strategy that is given to people in a paternalistic manner. Recently, a self-regulation strategy called mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) (e.g., lettingen, 2012, 2014) has been designed to allow people to personalize the content of the ifand then-parts of their implementation intentions. In mental contrasting, people are first encouraged to elaborate on their wishes and imagine the most desired outcomes of their fulfilment. Then they are asked to contrast these outcomes with the personal obstacles that stand in the way of achieving these outcomes. Mentally contrasting desired outcomes versus real-world obstacles creates a propensity to plan and enables a person to identify powerful, idiosyncratic barriers to wish fulfilment. Once these obstacles are identified, the person is ready to form if-then plans that link the presence of the obstacles to instrumental responses that are helpful in overcoming those obstacles (e.g., "If I encounter [my obstacle], then I will [my response to effectively manage the obstacle]!"). Mental contrasting has been found to benefit the effects of implementation intentions (e.g., Adriaanse et al., 2010; Kirk, lettingen, & Gollwitzer, 2013). For example, MCII proved more effective in helping college students to break snacking habits than forming implementation intentions on their own. Importantly, mental contrasting increased perceived clarity about the personal obstacles involved in reducing unhealthy snacking. When Adriaanse, de Ridder and de Wit (2009) compared the effectiveness of if-then plans that were personalized vs. kept general (i.e., specifically referred to each participant's unique action control problem vs. a general action control problem), the personalized if-then plans turned out to be more effective. Information about MCII and how it can be applied is freely available at woopmylife.org (WO OP stands for the MCII components: Wish, Outcome, Obstacle and Plan). P. M. Gollwitze , M. Bieleke and P. Sheeran Enhancing consumer behaviour

Enhancing consumer behaviour with implementation intentions

Don’t get so emotional! Volitional control of emotions via implementation intentions

Incidental affective influences on effort-related cardiac response: The critical role of choosing task characteristics.

De nombreux resultats demontrent que la planification specifique (implementation intention) ― qui s'ajoute au choix du but (goal intention) ― facilite la realisation du but. Cette autoregulation, impliquant la procedure « si ― alors », confie a un indice de la situation le declenchement automatique de l'action appropriee et la protection de la demarche vers le but contre les deraillements qui pourraient etre causes par des distractions, des tentations ou des etats internes nuisibles. Ce mecanisme de la planification specifique n'implique aucune reduction de la flexibilite de la demarche vers le but. Des applications cliniques decoulent naturellement de l'ensemble de ces resultats.

La ténacité flexible dans la poursuite des buts personnels

Surprisingly little experimental research has been conducted regarding the origins of obsessive thinking. Based on prior research on basic psychological needs (Sheldon and Gunz in J Pers 77(5):1467–1492, 2009) and future fantasies (Kappes and Oettingen in J Exp Soc Psychol 47(4):719–729, 2011), we proposed that a threat to the need for relatedness increases obsessive thinking about a romantic partner (i.e., a need-relevant target) when combined with a negatively valenced future fantasy about the partner. We tested this hypothesis in three experiments: Experiment 1, administered online, used a meta-cognitive relatedness threat manipulation, a scenario-based fantasy valence manipulation, and a measure of obsessive thinking. Experiment 2 used a modified fantasy valence manipulation, a new obsessive thinking measure, and a measure of romantic proximity-seeking. Experiment 3 used cyberball to manipulate relatedness threat in the lab. An internal meta-analysis revealed that threats to relatedness (vs. no threat) and negative fantasies (vs. positive fantasies) both led to small increases in obsessive thinking; however, inconsistent evidence emerged for the hypothesized threat-by-fantasy valence interaction.

Peter M. Gollwitzer

Papers

Enhancing consumer behaviour with implementation intentions

Don’t get so emotional! Volitional control of emotions via implementation intentions

Incidental affective influences on effort-related cardiac response: The critical role of choosing task characteristics.

La ténacité flexible dans la poursuite des buts personnels

Relatedness needs and negative fantasies as the origins of obsessive thinking in romantic relationships