Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

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The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations ( N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%--60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%--52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2634758.pdf

A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies

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Using Multivariate Statistics

Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.

Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.

Diiker (1963) beschreibt reaktive Anspannungssteigerung als einen kompensatorischen Vorgang im Leistungsverhalten, der durch Erschwerungen bei Leistungsaufgaben hervorgerufen wird, wenn eine Person motiviert ist, gute Leistungen zu erbringen. Nachgewiesen wurde das Phanomen bei Aufgabenerschwerungen durch Alkoholund Schlafmitteleinnahme, durch das Bearbeiten einer zusatzlichen Aufgabe und durch Ermiidung. In der Commitmenttheorie des Zielstrebens (Gollwitzer & Rohloff, in press) wurde das Phanomen der reaktiven Anspannungssteigerung wieder aufgegriffen und in Zusammenhang mit der Geschwindigkeit der Zielverfolgung gebracht. In einer Studie mit manipulierter Zielannaherungsgeschwindigkeit und Zielnahe wurden die Vorhersagen dieser Theorie den Aussagen alternativer Zieltheorien empirisch gegenubergestellt. Die Aussagen der Commitmenttheorie des Zielstrebens wurden bestatigt und lassen sich im Sinne einer reaktiven Anspannungssteigerung interpretieren: Die Leistungssteigerung bei negativen Geschwindigkeitsstandard-Diskrepanzen erfolgte als unmittelbare Reaktion auf das Geschwindigkeitsfeedback.

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Reaktive Anspannungssteigerung und Geschwindigkeit in der Zielverfolgung

Deliberation is commonly assumed to be a central characteristic of humans' higher cognitive functions, and the responses following deliberation are attributed to mechanisms that are qualitatively different from lower-level associative or affectively driven responses. In contrast to this perspective, the current article's aim is to draw attention to potential issues with making inferences about mechanisms of deliberation based on characteristics of the observed decision outcomes. We propose that a consequence of deliberation is to simply reduce the likelihood of expressing immediately available (dominant) responses. We illustrate how this consequence of deliberation can provide a parsimonious explanation for a broad range of prior research on decision-making. Furthermore, we discuss how the present perspective on deliberation relates to the question of how the cognitive system implements nondominant responses based on associative learning and affective prioritization rather than voluntary decisions. Beyond the present article's theoretical focus, for illustrative purposes, we provide some empirical evidence (three studies, N = 175) that is in line with our proposal. In sum, our theoretical framework, prior empirical evidence, and the present studies suggest that deliberation reduces the likelihood of expressing dominant responses. Although we do not argue that this is the only consequence or mechanism regarding deliberation, we aim to highlight that it is worthwhile considering this minimal consequence of deliberation as compared with certain higher cognitive functions in the interpretation of deliberation outcomes.

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Deliberation decreases the likelihood of expressing dominant responses

Commentary: processes of disengagement – letting go from the wanted future, the missed-out past, and coping with inevitable endings

Motivation und Volition

Two experiments explored the role of social motivation and perspective taking in integrative and distributive negotiations. It was tested whether perspective taking moderates the effect of social motivation on negotiation outcomes in integrative and distributive negotiations. In line with previous findings it was found that in an integrative negotiation setting (Experiment 1) pairs of negotiators with an egoistic motivation achieved weaker negotiation outcomes than pairs of negotiators with a prosocial motivation. However, when pairs of negotiators with an egoistic motivation where asked to take their counterpart's perspective during the negotiation, they did not differ in the quality of their achieved negotiation outcomes from pairs of negotiators with a prosocial motivation. In experiment 2, it was tested whether perspective taking moderates the effect of social motivation on negotiation outcomes within both integrative and distributive negotiation settings. Again, in an integrative negotiation setting pairs of negotiators with an egoistic motivation asked to take their counterpart's perspective achieved the same quality of negotiation outcomes as pairs of negotiators with a prosocial motivation. However, this was only true within an integrative negotiation setting. Within a distributive negotiation setting, pairs of negotiators with an egoistic motivation achieved weaker negotiation outcomes than pairs of negotiators with a prosocial motivation, irrespectively of whether they were asked to take their counterpart's perspective or not.

Peter M. Gollwitzer

Papers

Reaktive Anspannungssteigerung und Geschwindigkeit in der Zielverfolgung

Deliberation decreases the likelihood of expressing dominant responses

Commentary: processes of disengagement – letting go from the wanted future, the missed-out past, and coping with inevitable endings

Motivation und Volition

Social Value Orientation and Perspective Taking in Integrative and Distributive Negotiations