Human beings can be proactive and engaged or, alternatively, passive and alienated, largely as a function of the social conditions in which they develop and function. Accordingly, research guided by self-determination theo~ has focused on the social-contextual conditions that facilitate versus forestall the natural processes of self-motivation and healthy psychological development. Specifically, factors have been examined that enhance versus undermine intrinsic motivation, self-regulation, and well-being. The findings have led to the postulate of three innate psychological needs--competence, autonomy, and relatednesswhich when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and when thwarted lead to diminished motivation and well-being. Also considered is the significance of these psychological needs and processes within domains such as health care, education, work, sport, religion, and psychotherapy. T he fullest representations of humanity show people to be curious, vital, and self-motivated. At their best, they are agentic and inspired, striving to learn; extend themselves; master new skills; and apply their talents responsibly. That most people show considerable effort, agency, and commitment in their lives appears, in fact, to be more normative than exceptional, suggesting some very positive and persistent features of human nature. Yet, it is also clear that the human spirit can be diminished or crushed and that individuals sometimes reject growth and responsibility. Regardless of social strata or cultural origin, examples of both children and adults who are apathetic, alienated, and irresponsible are abundant. Such non-optimal human functioning can be observed not only in our psychological clinics but also among the millions who, for hours a day, sit passively before their televisions, stare blankly from the back of their classrooms, or wait listlessly for the weekend as they go about their jobs. The persistent, proactive, and positive tendencies of human nature are clearly not invariantly apparent. The fact that human nature, phenotypically expressed, can be either active or passive, constructive or indolent, suggests more than mere dispositional differences and is a function of more than just biological endowments. It also bespeaks a wide range of reactions to social environments that is worthy of our most intense scientific investigation. Specifically, social contexts catalyze both within- and between-person differences in motivation and personal growth, resulting in people being more self-motivated, energized, and integrated in some situations, domains, and cultures than in others. Research on the conditions that foster versus undermine positive human potentials has both theoretical import and practical significance because it can contribute not only to formal knowledge of the causes of human behavior but also to the design of social environments that optimize people's development, performance, and well-being. Research guided by self-determination theory (SDT) has had an ongoing concern with precisely these

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Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being.

Self-determination theory (SDT) maintains that an understanding of human motivation requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories, emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psychological growth, integrity, and well-being. This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health, specifically because different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction. Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations, whereas those that forestall autonomy, competence, or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation, performance, and well-being. We also discuss the relation of the psychological needs to cultural values, evolutionary processes, and other contemporary motivation theories.

/pdf/the-what-and-why-of-goal-pursuits-human-needs-and-the-self-9g2lmfmhmg.pdf

The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior

The present research develops and tests a theoretical extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that explains perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of social influence and cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model, referred to as TAM2, was tested using longitudinal data collected regarding four different systems at four organizations ( N = 156), two involving voluntary usage and two involving mandatory usage. Model constructs were measured at three points in time at each organization: preimplementation, one month postimplementation, and three months postimplementation. The extended model was strongly supported for all four organizations at all three points of measurement, accounting for 40%--60% of the variance in usefulness perceptions and 34%--52% of the variance in usage intentions. Both social influence processes (subjective norm, voluntariness, and image) and cognitive instrumental processes (job relevance, output quality, result demonstrability, and perceived ease of use) significantly influenced user acceptance. These findings advance theory and contribute to the foundation for future research aimed at improving our understanding of user adoption behavior.

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdfplus/2634758.pdf

A Theoretical Extension of the Technology Acceptance Model: Four Longitudinal Field Studies

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Using Multivariate Statistics

Major perspectives concerning stress are presented with the goal of clarifying the nature of what has proved to be a heuristic but vague construct. Current conceptualizations of stress are challenged as being too phenomenological and ambiguous, and consequently, not given to direct empirical testing. Indeed, it is argued that researchers have tended to avoid the problem of defining stress, choosing to study stress without reference to a clear framework. A new stress model called the model of conservation of resources is presented as an alternative. This resource-oriented model is based on the supposition that people strive to retain, project, and build resources and that what is threatening to them is the potential or actual loss of these valued resources. Implications of the model of conservation of resources for new research directions are discussed.

Conservation of resources. A new attempt at conceptualizing stress.

Social situations can, at times, have a detrimental influence on behavior (e.g., exposure to supermodels can make people dumb, certain social situations can prompt excessive alcohol consumption). Gaining control over such effects can be difficult because the situational influence often occurs outside conscious awareness. The present research investigates whether forming if-then plans or “implementation intentions” (Gollwitzer, 1999) can help people to strategically prevent unwanted social influences. Two experiments found that priming social categories (e.g., supermodels, Experiment 1) or social goals (e.g., socializing, Experiment 2) can have a detrimental impact on participants’ general knowledge (Experiment 1) and mental readiness to drink (Experiment 2), respectively. However, both experiments also showed that forming implementation intentions designed to ensure the effective mobilization of resources (Experiment 1) or to ignore temptation (Experiment 2) prevented social primes from influencing behavi...

Strategic Control Over the Unhelpful Effects of Primed Social Categories and Goals

The benefits and costs of if-then planning

From a motivational-volitional perspective, a first prerequisite for med~ ical adherence is that people walk away from a health care provider (or from medical instructions obtained elsewhere) with a strong intention (goal) to act on the advice or instructions given. Second, and equally important, people need to effectively translate their goals into action, not only right after the advice has been given but also weeks and months thereafter. What facilitates the setting of adherence goals, and what guarantees acting on them? In this chapter we try to answer both of these questions, starting with the issue of goal setting and continuing with the problem of goal implementation. More specifically, we outline self~regulatorystrategies that help people set adherence goals and attain them.

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The role of goal setting and goal striving in medical adherence

We review the latest research investigating how people explain their own actions when they have been activated nonconsciously. We will discuss evidence that when nonconsciously activated behavior is unexpected (e.g., norm- violating, against self -standards), negative affect arises and triggers confabulations aimed to explain the behavior. Nonconsciously activated behaviors may provide a window into everyday confabulation of (erroneous) explanations for behavior, which may also affect self-knowledge. Implications for self-concept formation and intentionality are discussed.

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Why did I do that? Explaining actions activated outside of awareness

Having finished reading Sniehotta, Presseau, and Araujo-Soares' (2014) article suggesting to retire the theory of planned behaviour (TPB), one of us could not help but recall a childhood episode. I...

https://www.psy.uni-hamburg.de/arbeitsbereiche/paedagogische-psychologie-und-motivation/personen/oettingen-gabriele/dokumente/gollwitzer-oettingen-2015.pdf

Peter M. Gollwitzer

Papers

Strategic Control Over the Unhelpful Effects of Primed Social Categories and Goals

The benefits and costs of if-then planning

The role of goal setting and goal striving in medical adherence

Why did I do that? Explaining actions activated outside of awareness

From studying the determinants of action to analysing its regulation: a commentary on Sniehotta, Presseau and Araújo-Soares