Showing papers in "Educational Psychology Review in 2016"

School Climate: A Review of the Construct, Measurement, and Impact on Student Outcomes.

Abstract: The construct of school climate has received attention as a way to enhance student achievement and reduce problem behaviors. The purpose of this article is to evaluate the existing literature on school climate and to bring to light the strengths, weakness, and gaps in the ways researchers have approached the construct. The central information in this article is organized into five sections. In the first, we describe the theoretical frameworks to support the multidimensionality of school climate and how school climate impacts student outcomes. In the second, we provide a breakdown of the four domains that make up school climate, including academic, community, safety, and institutional environment. In the third, we examine research on the outcomes of school climate. In the fourth, we outline the measurement and analytic methods of the construct of school climate. Finally, we summarize the strengths and limitations of the current work on school climate and make suggestions for future research directions.

The Effect of Small Sample Size on Two-Level Model Estimates: A Review and Illustration

Abstract: Multilevel models are an increasingly popular method to analyze data that originate from a clustered or hierarchical structure. To effectively utilize multilevel models, one must have an adequately large number of clusters; otherwise, some model parameters will be estimated with bias. The goals for this paper are to (1) raise awareness of the problems associated with a small number of clusters, (2) review previous studies on multilevel models with a small number of clusters, (3) to provide an illustrative simulation to demonstrate how a simple model becomes adversely affected by small numbers of clusters, (4) to provide researchers with remedies if they encounter clustered data with a small number of clusters, and (5) to outline methodological topics that have yet to be addressed in the literature.

Eight Ways to Promote Generative Learning

Abstract: Generative learning involves actively making sense of to-be-learned information by mentally reorganizing and integrating it with one’s prior knowledge, thereby enabling learners to apply what they have learned to new situations. In this article, we present eight learning strategies intended to promote generative learning: summarizing, mapping, drawing, imagining, self-testing, self-explaining, teaching, and enacting. First, we provide an overview of generative learning theory, grounded in Wittrock’s (1974) generative model of comprehension and reflected in more recent frameworks of active learning, such as Mayer’s (2014) select-organize-integrate (SOI) framework. Next, for each of the eight generative learning strategies, we provide a description, review exemplary research studies, discuss potential boundary conditions, and provide practical recommendations for implementation. Finally, we discuss the implications of generative learning for the science of learning, and we suggest directions for further research.

The Relation Between Self-Regulated Learning and Academic Achievement Across Childhood and Adolescence: A Meta-Analysis

Abstract: This research synthesis explores how academic achievement relates to two main components of self-regulated learning for students in elementary and secondary school. Two meta-analyses integrated previous findings on (1) the defining metacognitive processes of self-regulated learning and (2) students’ use of cognitive strategies. Overall correlations were small (metacognitive processes, r = 0.20; cognitive strategies, r = 0.11), but there was systematic variation around both of them. Five moderator analyses were conducted to explain this variation. Average correlations significantly differed based on the specific process or strategy, academic subject, grade level, type of self-regulated learning measure, and type of achievement measure. Follow-up tests explored the nature of these differences and largely support the hypotheses. Theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Parent Autonomy Support, Academic Achievement, and Psychosocial Functioning: a Meta-analysis of Research

Abstract: A meta-analysis of 36 studies examining the relations between parent autonomy support (PAS) and child outcomes indicated that PAS was related to greater academic achievement and indicators of adaptive psychosocial functioning, including autonomous motivation, psychological health, perceived competence, engagement, and positive attitudes toward school, among other outcomes. The strongest relation emerged between PAS and psychological health. Results indicated that the strength of the PAS relation was stronger when PAS was reflective of both parents, rather than of just mothers or just fathers among five of six outcomes for which moderators could be examined. Moderator analyses also suggested that PAS correlations are stronger when the outcome is better aligned to the predictor and the relation between PAS and psychosocial outcomes may vary by grade level. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.

Associations of Parenting Styles and Dimensions with Academic Achievement in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-analysis

Abstract: Parents and researchers alike are interested in how to promote children’s academic competence. The present meta-analysis integrates the results of 308 empirical studies on associations of general parenting dimensions and styles with academic achievement of children and adolescents assessed via grade point average or academic achievement tests. Parental responsiveness (warmth), behavioral control, autonomy granting, and an authoritative parenting style were associated with better academic performance both concurrently and in longitudinal studies, although these associations were small in a statistical sense. Parental harsh control, and psychological control, as well as neglectful, authoritarian, and permissive parenting styles were related to lower achievement with small to very small effect sizes. With three exceptions, parenting dimensions and styles also predicted change in academic achievement over time. Moderating effects of child age, ethnicity, reporter on parenting and academic achievement, quality of the parenting and achievement measure, and publication status were identified. It is concluded that associations of academic achievement with general parenting dimensions/styles tend to be smaller than associations of school-specific parental involvement which have been addressed in previous meta-analyses.

Evaluating the Relationship Between Boredom and Academic Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis

Abstract: The experience of academic boredom among students may be universal; in fact, almost all students complain at least occasionally about being bored in class or while studying. Despite the perceived negative influence of boredom on learning, there has been no synthesis of empirical findings underscoring how boredom relates to academic outcomes. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to meta-analyze the research exploring the relationship between students’ academic boredom and their motivation, study strategies and behaviors, and performance. A total of 29 studies, involving 19,052 students, met the inclusion criteria. The overall effect size, \( \overline{r} \) = −.24, was significant, p < .001. In subgroup analyses, the negative effect sizes were found to differ between secondary and post-secondary students, and boredom experienced in class had greater negative impact on students’ academic outcomes than boredom experienced while studying. In addition, a significant differential impact of boredom on academic motivation, study strategies and behaviors, and achievement was found. These findings suggest that education professionals should identify strategies to alleviate students’ boredom in academic settings.

Teacher Enthusiasm: Reviewing and Redefining a Complex Construct

Abstract: The last review on teacher enthusiasm was 45 years ago, and teacher enthusiasm remains a compelling yet complex variable in the educational context. Since Rosenshine's (School Review 78:499-514, 1970) review, the conceptualizations, definitions, methodology, and results have only become more scattered, and several related constructs have emerged that may or may not be synonymous with teacher enthusiasm. In this review, we delve into the past four decades of teacher enthusiasm research to provide a potential starting point for a new, consolidated direction in teacher enthusiasm research based on a proposed, holistic definition of enthusiasm which brings together research from the past and can fuel research for the future. We begin by reviewing definitions of teacher enthusiasm and related constructs and, thereafter, put forward a new and integrative definition of teacher enthusiasm that combines the two most prevalent conceptualizations of the construct, namely experienced enjoyment and expressive behavior. Bearing our proposed definition in mind, we go on to present numerous measures that assess teacher enthusiasm, detail research evidence related to its correlates, and finally derive several research implications that, when considered in future research, promise to advance the field.

The Future of Student Self-Assessment: a Review of Known Unknowns and Potential Directions

Abstract: This paper reviews current known issues in student self-assessment (SSA) and identifies five topics that need further research: (1) SSA typologies, (2) accuracy, (3) role of expertise, (4) SSA and teacher/curricular expectations, and (5) effects of SSA for different students. Five SSA typologies were identified showing that there are different conceptions on the SSA components but the field still uses SSA quite uniformly. A significant amount of research has been devoted to SSA accuracy, and there is a great deal we know about it. Factors that influence accuracy and implications for teaching are examined, with consideration that students’ expertise on the task at hand might be an important prerequisite for accurate self-assessment. Additionally, the idea that SSA should also consider the students’ expectations about their learning is reflected upon. Finally, we explored how SSA works for different types of students and the challenges of helping lower performers. This paper sheds light on SSA research needs to address the known unknowns in this field.

A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship between Learning Outcomes and Parental Involvement during Early Childhood Education and Early Elementary Education.

Abstract: This meta-analysis examined the relationship between learning outcomes of children and educational involvement of parents during a unique period of early childhood education and early elementary education based on 100 independent effect sizes from 46 studies. Learning outcomes are academic achievement, and frameworks of parental involvement measure family involvement and partnership development. The relationship (with adjustment over frameworks and study features) indicated a strong and positive correlation (.509) between learning outcomes and parental involvement. Although types of parental (behavioral, personal, and intellectual) involvement and building institutional capacity demonstrated the greatest importance to the relationship, the role of parents (family involvement) was more important than the role of schools and communities (partnership development). For a strong relationship, behavioral involvement, home supervision, and home-school connection were the keys from family involvement, whereas capacity to engage parents, respectful and effective leadership in relation to families and children, and institutionalized authentic partnerships were the keys from partnership development.

Disentangling Curiosity: Dimensionality, Definitions, and Distinctions from Interest in Educational Contexts.

Abstract: Curiosity has received increasing attention in the educational literature, yet empirical investigations have been limited by inconsistent conceptualizations and the use of curiosity synonymously with other constructs, particularly interest. The purpose of this review is to critically examine the dimensionality, definitions, and measures of curiosity within educational settings, and address the boundaries between curiosity and interest. A systematic review of 39 articles from 2003 to 2013 revealed a reliance on self-report measures, a focus on curiosity as a personality trait, and definitions characterized by four themes, the most common of which were curiosity as a need for knowledge or information, and curiosity as a motivator of exploratory behavior. The overlap and relations between curiosity and interest are discussed, and it is proposed that an examination of (a) the role of knowledge, (b) goals and outcomes, and (c) stability and malleability provide a basis for differentiating curiosity and interest according to their essential characteristics.

A Comprehensive Meta-analysis of Handwriting Instruction

Abstract: While there are many ways to author text today, writing with paper and pen (or pencil) is still quite common at home and work, and predominates writing at school. Because handwriting can bias readers’ judgments about the ideas in a text and impact other writing processes, like planning and text generation, it is important to ensure students develop legible and fluent handwriting. This meta-analysis examined true- and quasi-experimental intervention studies conducted with K-12 students to determine if teaching handwriting enhanced legibility and fluency and resulted in better writing performance. When compared to no instruction or non-handwriting instructional conditions, teaching handwriting resulted in statistically greater legibility (ES = 0.59) and fluency (ES = 0.63). Motor instruction did not produce better handwriting skills (ES = 0.10 for legibility and −0.07 for fluency), but individualizing handwriting instruction (ES = 0.69) and teaching handwriting via technology (ES = 0.85) resulted in statistically significant improvements in legibility. Finally, handwriting instruction produced statistically significant gains in the quality (ES = 0.84), length (ES = 1.33), and fluency of students’ writing (ES = 0.48). The findings from this meta-analysis provide support for one of the assumptions underlying the Simple View of Writing (Berninger et al., Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 291–304, 2002): text transcription skills are an important ingredient in writing and writing development.

Rethinking the Boundaries of Cognitive Load Theory in Complex Learning

Abstract: In the traditional framework of cognitive load theory, it is assumed that the acquisition of domain-specific knowledge structures (or schemas) is the only instructional goal, and therefore, the theory is applicable to any instructional task. Accordingly, the basic concepts of intrinsic (productive) and extraneous (unproductive) types of cognitive load were defined based on the relevance (or irrelevance) of the corresponding cognitive processes that impose the load to achieving this universal instructional goal, and the instructional methods advocated by this theory are aimed at enhancing the acquisition of domain-specific schemas. The paper suggests considering this goal within the whole variety of possible specific goals of different learner activities that could be involved in complex learning. This would result in narrowing down of boundaries of cognitive load theory and have implications for distinguishing types of cognitive load, sequencing different goals and instructional tasks, considering the role of learner expertise, and other aspects of complex learning. One of the consequences of this reconceptualization is abandoning the rigid explicit instruction versus minimal guidance dichotomy and replacing it with a more flexible approach based on differentiating specific goals of various learner activities in complex learning. In particular, it may allow reconciling seemingly contradictory results from studies of the effectiveness of worked examples in cognitive load theory (supporting the initial fully guided explicit instruction for novice learners) and studies within the frameworks of productive failure and invention learning that have reportedly demonstrated that minimally guided tasks provided prior to explicit instruction might benefit novice learners.

Is Chinese Special? Four Aspects of Chinese Literacy Acquisition that Might Distinguish Learning Chinese from Learning Alphabetic Orthographies

Abstract: Some aspects of Chinese literacy development do not conform to patterns of literacy development in alphabetic orthographies. Four are highlighted here. First, semantic radicals are one aspect of Chinese characters that have no analogy to alphabetic orthographies. Second, the unreliability of phonological cues in Chinese along with the fact that word building relies heavily on lexical compounding in Chinese makes morphological awareness particularly important for early reading development. Third, two different scripts (simplified, traditional) have different characteristics and strengths and weaknesses in relation to teaching and learning Chinese. Fourth, learning Chinese may strengthen both segmental and suprasegmental phonological sensitivity and even promote basic visual skills, potential cognitive advantages. Collectively, these aspects of Chinese make it important to consider as a unique orthography for understanding universals and specifics in the process of learning to read and write.

Meta-Analyses of the Effects of Tier 2 Type Reading Interventions in Grades K-3

Abstract: This meta-analysis extends previous work on extensive Tier 3 type reading interventions (Wanzek & Vaughn, 2007; Wanzek et al., 2013) to Tier 2 type interventions by examining a non-overlapping set of studies addressing the effects of less extensive reading interventions for students with or at risk for reading difficulties in Grades K-3. We examined the overall effects of these interventions on students' foundational skills, language, and comprehension as well as the intervention features that may be associated with improved outcomes. We conducted four meta-analyses on 72 studies to examine effects on (1) standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES = 0.54), (2) not-standardized foundational skill measures (mean ES = 0.62), (3) standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES = 0.36), and (4) not-standardized language/comprehension measures (mean ES = 1.02). There were no differences in effects related to intervention type, instructional group size, grade level, intervention implementer, or the number of intervention hours.

Assessing teacher appraisals and stress in the classroom: Review of the Classroom Appraisal of Resources and Demands.

Abstract: Stress research increasingly emphasizes the role of appraisal in determining which events are perceived as stressful. The Classroom Appraisal of Resources and Demands (CARD) was developed to measure teachers’ appraisals of their classroom demands and resources in order to assess their risk for experiencing occupational stress. The present purposes are to review the literature identifying appraisals as a key determinant of stress, to describe the development of the CARD, and to provide meta-analytic results from 18 studies comparing CARD scores to the following variables: teacher’s job satisfaction and occupational commitment, burnout symptoms, stress prevention resources, and challenging student demands. Results suggest moderate effects for associations between the CARD and these constructs, and implications for educational policy aimed at reducing turnover and increasing teacher and student welfare are discussed.

Revisiting the Role of Rewards in Motivation and Learning: Implications of Neuroscientific Research

Abstract: Rewards have been examined extensively by both psychologists and neuorscientists and have become one of the most contentious issues in social and educational psychology. In psychological research, reward processing has typically been studied in relation to behavioral outcomes. In contrast, neuroscientists have been examining how rewards are processed by brain structures that are related to the reward circuitry, and in a few instances have also evaluated behavioral outcomes. In this article, I first present findings from both the social and educational psychology and neuroscientific research on reward processing that have frequently been reported without acknowledgment of the presence of the other. Subsequently, five topics pointing to the need for integration of research findings across these two fields are considered. These include the following: (a) distinctions between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, (b) causes of undermining effects of rewards, (c) potential benefits of choice provided for individuals, (d) differences in reward types, and (e) individual differences in reward processing. It is argued that, if positive aspects of rewards are to be utilized and their potentially negative effects are to be avoided, neuroscientific, social, and educational research findings need to be integrated. This paper provides a first step toward such integration.

Spaced Retrieval Practice Increases College Students’ Short- and Long-Term Retention of Mathematics Knowledge

Abstract: A major challenge college students face is retaining the knowledge they acquire in their classes, especially in cumulative disciplines such as engineering, where ultimate success depends on long-term retention of foundational content. Cognitive psychologists have recently recommended various techniques educators might use to increase retention. One technique (spaced retrieval practice) involves extending opportunities to retrieve course content beyond a customarily short temporal window following initial learning. Confirming the technique’s utility requires demonstrating that it increases retention in real classroom settings, with commonly encountered educational content, and that gains endure into subsequent semesters. We manipulated spaced versus massed retrieval practice in a precalculus course for engineering students and followed a subset of students who proceeded into a calculus class the following semester. Spacing versus massing was manipulated within- and between-subjects. Within-subjects, students retained spaced content better than massed content in the precalculus course. Between-subjects, students for whom some retrieval practice was spaced, compared to those for whom all practice was massed, performed better on the final exam in the precalculus class and on exams in the calculus class. These findings suggest that spaced retrieval practice can have a meaningful, long-lasting impact on educational outcomes.

Inference Instruction for Struggling Readers: a Synthesis of Intervention Research

Abstract: Skill in generating inferences predicts reading comprehension for students in the elementary and intermediate grades even after taking into account word reading, vocabulary knowledge, and cognitive ability (Cain et al., Journal of Educational Psychology, 96, 671–81, 2004; Kendeou et al., Journal of Research in Reading, 31, 259–72, 2008; Oakhill and Cain, Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(2), 91–121, 2012; Oakhill et al., Language and Cognitive Processes, 18, 443–468, 2003). While research shows that struggling readers are less likely than proficient readers to make inferences when reading text (Cain et al., Memory and Cognition, 29, 850–859, 2001; Oakhill, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 54, 31–39, 1984), struggling readers may also benefit more from inference instruction than do proficient readers (Hansen and Pearson, Journal of Educational Psychology, 75(6), 821–829, 1983; McGee and Johnson, Educational Psychology, 23(1), 49–59, 2003; Raphael and Pearson, American Educational Research Journal, 22(2), 217–235, 1985; Yuill and Oakhill, Applied Cognitive Psychology, 2, 33–45, 1988). This synthesis assessed (a) the effectiveness of inference instruction in improving reading outcomes for struggling readers and (b) the features of instructional interventions (e.g., duration, type of instruction) that were associated with improved outcomes. One single-case design and eight experimental group design studies were synthesized. Mean effect sizes for group design studies ranged from g = 0.72* to g = 1.85* for researcher-developed measures of inferential reading comprehension and from g = −.03 to g = 1.96* for standardized measures of reading comprehension. The percentage of non-overlapping data for the study that employed a single-case design was 100 % for all measures.

A Classroom Study on the Relationship Between Student Achievement and Retrieval-Enhanced Learning

Abstract: Retrieval practice has been shown to produce powerful learning gains in laboratory experiments but has seldom been explored in classrooms as a means of enhancing students’ learning of their course-relevant material. Furthermore, research is lacking concerning the role of individual differences in learning from retrieval. The current study explored the effects of retrieval in a large undergraduate introductory biology course as a function of individual differences in student achievement. Students completed in-class exercises that required them to retrieve course information (e.g., recalling definitions for terms and labeling diagrams) followed by feedback or to simply copy the information without retrieving it. A later quiz over the information showed that high-performing students benefited more from retrieving than copying, whereas middle- and low-performing students benefited more from copying than retrieving. When asked to predict their quiz scores following the in-class exercises, high-performers demonstrated better overall metacognitive calibration compared to middle- or low-performers. These results highlight the importance of individual differences in learning from retrieval and encourage future research using course-relevant material to consider the role of student achievement in classroom-based interventions.

The Structure of Ill-Structured (and Well-Structured) Problems Revisited

Abstract: In his 1973 article The Structure of ill structured problems, Herbert Simon proposed that solving ill-structured problems could be modeled within the same information-processing framework developed for solving well-structured problems. This claim is reexamined within the context of over 40 years of subsequent research and theoretical development. Well-structured (puzzle) problems can be represented by a problem space consisting of well-defined initial and goal states that are connected by legal moves. In contrast, the initial, goal, and intermediate states of ill-structured (design) problems are incompletely specified. This article analyzes the similarities and differences among puzzles, insight puzzles, classroom problems, and design problems within Gick’s (Educational Psychologist, 21, 99–120, 1986) theoretical framework consisting of representation construction, schema activation, and heuristic search. The analysis supports Simon’s (Artificial Intelligence, 4, 181–201, 1973) claim that information-processing principles apply to all problems but apply differently as problems become more ill structured.

Positive Behavior Interventions: The Issue of Sustainability of Positive Effects.

Abstract: During the last decade, positive behavior interventions have resulted in improvement of school behavior and academic gains in a range of school settings worldwide. Recent studies identify sustainability of current positive behavior intervention programs as a major concern. The purpose of this article is to identify future direction for effective implementation of positive behavior interventions based on a comprehensive review of the current status of positive behavior interventions in terms of sustainability. The review will also examine implementation fidelity, as a factor that impacts upon sustainability. Literature reviewed in this study demonstrates that administrator support and professional development were the most frequently cited influential factors in previous research on sustainability of positive behavior interventions. In particular, the review highlights the significance of implementation fidelity at the classroom level for sustaining positive outcomes of positive behavior interventions over time. It is argued that in order to sustain positive effects of positive behavior intervention, future implementation efforts need to emphasize administrator support for the school team, ongoing high-quality professional development, and technical assistance. Moreover, a focus on coaching classroom-level implementation fidelity is of significant importance, as is the development and validation of evaluation tools for sustainability based on large-scale longitudinal international studies and more in-depth qualitative investigations.

Perspective Taking: Training Procedures in Developmentally Typical Preschoolers. Different Intervention Methods and Their Effectiveness.

Abstract: Perspective taking, defined as the ability to take on the visual, cognitive, and affective perspective of others, is considered a highly adaptive skill, vital for the child’s social, intellectual, and emotional development. This article provides a critical analysis of scientific psychological literature from 1995 to the present on the main methods of intervention used to promote perspective taking in developmentally typical preschool children (3–5 years). The focus is on different methodological approaches, and how the cognitive and emotional dimensions that make up this capacity have been developed through specific operational procedures, emphasizing their strengths and critical factors. In particular, it focuses on the intervention methods based on three major analytical perspectives, specifically the cognitive approach [Theory of Mind (ToM)], the behaviorist approach [Relational Frame Theory (RFT)], and finally, the socio-constructionist approach, are compared. Analysis of the collected data has revealed that despite some critical yet controversial factors, it is actually possible to teach and improve perspective taking in preschoolers through different methods, applicable in different contexts and dependent on the involvement of significant adults, such as parents and educators.

How Effective is Example Generation for Learning Declarative Concepts

Abstract: Declarative concepts (i.e., key terms and corresponding definitions for abstract concepts) represent foundational knowledge that students learn in many content domains. Thus, investigating techniques to enhance concept learning is of critical importance. Various theoretical accounts support the expectation that example generation will serve this purpose, but few studies have examined the efficacy of this technique. We conducted three experiments involving 487 undergraduates to investigate the effects of example generation on concept learning and examined factors that may moderate its effectiveness. Students read a short text that introduced eight concepts. Some students were then prompted to generate concrete examples of each concept followed by definition restudy, whereas others only restudied definitions for the same amount of time. Two days later, students completed final tests involving example generation and definition cued recall. Meta-analytic outcomes indicated that example generation yields moderate improvements in learning of declarative concepts, relative to restudy only. Each experiment also included additional groups to investigate potential moderators. Example generation tended to be more effective with spaced versus massed restudy. Despite strong correlations between the quality of examples generated during practice and final test performance, experimental manipulations that improved example quality did not improve learning. In sum, the current work establishes that example generation enhances concept learning and provides an important foundation for further investigating factors that moderate its benefits to learning.

Does Writing Summaries Improve Memory for Text

Abstract: In five experiments, we consistently found that items included in summaries were better remembered than items omitted from summaries. We did not, however, find evidence that summary writing was better than merely restudying the text. These patterns held with shorter and longer texts, when the text was present or absent during the summary writing, with both short answer and multiple choice criterion tests, with a brief delay prior to the final test or with a several day delay, and regardless of whether the summary was written immediately after reading the text or after a short time away from the text. We additionally found evidence that writing a summary sometimes helped participants estimate how much they learned from the text. However, it seems that students do not write effective summaries because they are quite poor at picking out the important points from the text.

Beyond the Rainbow: Retrieval Practice Leads to Better Spelling than Does Rainbow Writing.

Abstract: In three experiments, we compared the effectiveness of rainbow writing and retrieval practice, two common methods of spelling instruction. In experiment 1 (n = 14), second graders completed 2 days of spelling practice, followed by spelling tests 1 day and 5 weeks later. A repeated measures analysis of variance demonstrated that spelling accuracy for words trained with retrieval practice was higher than for words trained with rainbow writing on both tests (η p 2 = .49). In experiments 2 (second graders, n = 16) and 3 (first graders, n = 12), students completed 2 days of spelling practice followed by a spelling test 1 day later. Results replicated experiment 1; spelling accuracy was higher for words trained with retrieval practice compared with rainbow writing (η p 2 = .42 and .64, respectively). Furthermore, students endorsed both liking and learning from retrieval practice at least as much as (and sometimes more than) rainbow writing. Results demonstrate that retrieval practice is a more useful (and as engaging) training method than is rainbow writing and extend the well-established testing effect to beginning spellers.

Optimizing Word Learning via Links to Perceptual and Motoric Experience

Abstract: The aim of this review is to consider how current vocabulary training methods could be optimized by considering recent scientific insights in how the brain represents conceptual knowledge. We outline the findings from several methods of vocabulary training. In each case, we consider how taking an embodied cognition perspective could impact word learning. The evidence we review suggests that vocabulary training methods can be optimized by making a congruent link between the words to learn and one’s own perceptual and motoric experiences. In particular, we suggest that motoric information about the meaning of a word could be incorporated into more standard vocabulary training methods. Finally, we consider the impact an embodied cognitive perspective may have on other characteristics of word learning, such as individual differences in learning and variations in learning different types of words, for example words from different word classes and words in different contexts.

Unpacking the Complexity of Linear Equations from a Cognitive Load Theory Perspective.

Abstract: The degree of element interactivity determines the complexity and therefore the intrinsic cognitive load of linear equations The unpacking of linear equations at the level of operational and relational lines allows the classification of linear equations in a hierarchical level of complexity Mapping similar operational and relational lines across linear equations revealed that multi-step equations are derivatives of two-step equations, which in turn, are derivatives of one-step equations Hence, teaching and learning of linear equations can occur in a sequential manner so that learning new knowledge (eg two-step equations) is built on learners’ prior knowledge (eg one-step equations), thus reducing working memory load The number and nature of the operational line as well as the number of relational lines also affects the efficiency of instructional method for linear equations Apart from the degree of element interactivity, the presence of complex element (eg fraction, negative pronumeral) also increases the complexity of linear equations and thus poses a challenge to the learners

Individual and Institutional Productivity in Educational Psychology Journals from 2009 to 2014

Abstract: This article examines the productivity of both individuals and institutions, indexed through an examination of five educational psychology journals (Cognition and Instruction, Contemporary Educational Psychology, Educational Psychologist, Educational Psychology Review, and Journal of Educational Psychology) from 2009 to 2014. These results are discussed relative to four previous studies (Hsieh et al. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 333–343, 2004; Jones et al. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35, 11–16, 2010; Smith et al. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 23, 173–181, 1998; Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 422–430, 2003). Vanderbilt University and Fred Paas replaced the University of Maryland and Richard E. Mayer as the top research institution and author, respectively. Sixteen of the top 19 researchers’ institutions were outside the USA, compared to only 10 of the top 32 during 2003–2008 and three of the top 20 during 1991–1996. Educational psychology research continues the trend of becoming more international.

The Connection Between Teaching Methods and Attribution Errors

Abstract: We collected data at a large, very selective public university on what math and science instructors felt was the biggest barrier to their students’ learning. We also determined the extent of each instructor’s use of research-based effective teaching methods. Instructors using fewer effective methods were more likely to say the greatest barrier to student learning was the internal deficiencies of the students (the “fundamental attribution error”). They listed deficiencies such as poor preparation and work ethic. In total, 37 % of the instructor attributions were to student deficiencies, but this fraction varied dramatically between departments.