Showing papers in "European Journal of Social Psychology in 1982"

Explanations for unemployment in britain

Abstract: Psychological studies on unemployment in the 1930's and the 1970's and 1980's have concentrated on the psychological impact of unemployment on such things as people's health, self-esteem and social interaction. Furthermore studies have, not unnaturally, concentrated almost exclusively on the unemployed neglecting the employed altogether. Very few studies have concerned the range and determinants of lay explanations or attributions about the causes of unemployment. This study set out to examine differences in the explanations for unemployment as a function of whether people were employed or unemployed, as well as their age, sex, education and voting pattern, The results showed a predictable pattern of differences between the employed and unemployed, the former believing more in individualistic explanations and less in societal explanations than the latter. Whereas there were few sex and age differences, education and vote revealed numerous differences in explanations for unemployment. As in the case with explanations for poverty, Conservatives found individualistic explanations for unemployment more important than Labour voters who in turn found societal explanations more important than Conservative voters. Results were discussed in terms of the psychology of explanations, political socialization and the experience of unemployment. Problems in this study as well as the limitations and difficulties in research of the kind were also discussed.

The social implications of embarrassment displays and restitution behavior

Abstract: The present study examines the evaluative consequences of two kinds of reaction to committing a social transgression. In an experimental study, embarrassment display and restitution behaviour were manipulated orthogonally in the context of a videotaped incident in which an actor was seen to upset a sales display in a store. Subjects were shown one of the four versions of this incident and asked to rate the actor responsible for the mishap. It was reasoned that both appearing embarrassed and engaging in restitution would have positive, but distinct, effects on social evaluation, and that the beneficial effect of restitution would be mitigated by embarrassment display. Results were consistent with these expectations. Discussion focuses on the implications of these findings for the social function of embarrassment displays.

Social representations, social attribution and social identity: The intergroup images of ‘public’ and ‘comprehensive’ schoolboys

Abstract: Investigated the relationship between social representations, intergroup causal attributions and the search for a positive social identity in two rival groups from British secondary education. Part I studied the shared social beliefs 0f 20 ‘Public’ (PS) and 20 ‘Comprehensive’ (CS) schoolboys (age 16 years) concerning similarities and differences between the two types of schoolboy. Each subject wrote a short essay on the topic and these essays were content-analysed into 13 differences and 4 similarities between the two types of school. The two groups agreed on a number of points, but consensus within each group on a number of beliefs revealed distinct social representations. Part II studied the effect of group membership and social categorization on causal attributions for success and failure in examinations. Twenty-four PS and 24 CS boys {age 16–17 years) were used in a 2 (school of subjects) × 2 (school of stimuli) × 2 (success/failure) design, with one between and two within-subject factors. Each subject read four background descriptions of candidates for university entrance, then made a number of ratings. On the page following each description, subjects attributed the candidate's performance to ability, effort, task difficulty and luck; a confidence rating was also made. Analyses of variance suggested that second-order interactions between group membership of the subjects, social categorization of the stimuli and achievement outcome were most important. Public schoolboys differentiated themselves from the CS boys by means of ability (p < 0.08 and effort (p < 0.0005) attributions; CS boys differentiated in tern of luck (p < 0.06). Part III studied social identity processes in the same 48 subjects. Each subject read a 20—item questionnaire based on Part I, with 10 traits classified as Public and 10 as Comprehensive; within each set of traits half were autostereotype and half heterostereotype traits. Subjects made group-ratings, evaluations and self-ratings on each trait. Analyses of variance [2 (schools) × 2 (items) × 2 (stereotype)] were computed on each dependent measure. For the group ratings a main effect of items (p < 0.0001) revealed that PS and CS items were differentially ascribed to the two groups. In addition, CS boys valued CS-autostereotype items most highly (p < 0.05) and rated themselves higher on CS items (p < 0.0001). Results are discussed in terms of the influence of social representations on both causal attributions and intergroup differentiation; the existence of intergroup biases in achievement attributions; and the different modes of differentiation chosen by the different status groups. Social Identity Theory is seen as a valuable framework with which to consider these findings.

The elimination of visible behaviour from social interactions: Effects on verbal, nonverbal and interpersonal variables

Abstract: The study intended to test a number of implications of the alleged communicative functions of nonverbal behaviours Four sets of specific hypotheses were defined under the general expectation of important effects of the suppression of visible behaviours from a channel of communication Pairs of subjects were requested to interact either face-to-face or through a wooden screen depriving them of reciprocal visibility Dependent variables comprised nonverbal behaviours, indices of paralinguistic, syntactic, grammatical and content aspects of the speech, and ratings of the partner and of the interpersonal situation In spite of the number and variety of measurements, differences in line with the predictions were extremely rare It is concluded that, better than the communicative ones, other functions such as assistance to the speech encoding processes, probably account for the abundance of nonverbal behaviours among speaking subjects

The effects of differential ascribed category membership and norms on minority influence

Abstract: Investigated how either perceived competency or self-interest-and Zeitgeist affect minority influence, or: how Moscovici's theory does apply to actual social minorities. The self-interest notion predicts that ‘single’ minorities (deviating only in terms of beliefs) are more influential than ‘double’ minorities (deviating also in category membership) while the competency notion predicts the reverse. Further, either minority is expected to be influential only when the Zeitgeist is in favour of the minority position. In a 2 (pro/anti Zeitgeist) × 3 (single/double minority/control) factorial design, 120 conservative male American undergraduates discussed in groups of six-including two either male (single minority) or female (double minority) consistently liberal con federates-one of two issues: abortion (pro-) or death penalty (anti- Zeitgeist). The results support the self-interest notion: double minorities are perceived as having a stronger self-interest and exerted less influence than single minorities. The Zeitgeist hypothesis is confirmed, too. The underlying attributional processes and the ecological validity of previous studies are discussed.

Three patterns of social categorization in attribution memory

Abstract: Studied within the framework of accentuation theory the effects of three categorization conditions on attribution memory. Using the experimental approach proposed by Taylor et al (1978) we have tested the hypothesis that subject's discriminative accuracy in associating the sentences to the pictures of the person who produced them depends on the use of categorical criteria. On the basis of TajteL's model, it is plausible to expect the number of intercategorical errors to be smaller than the number of intercategorical errors. If a relation holds between the number of intercategorical errors and ‘strength’ of categorization criteria, then comparing the data of simple categorization situation with those of a situation of superimposed categorization we should expect a decrease of intercategorical errors in the latter. In the case of crossed categorizations, an increase of this type of errors should be expected. The results support this hypothesis. The data in the crossed categorizations condition are discussed in relation to explanation proposed by Brown and Turner (1979).

The child's conceptions about means of production and their owners

Abstract: Investigated the child's social ideas, namely notions about production means (factory, public transportation, farmland) and family influence on notion acquisition. 120 children of jive age groups (4 to 13 years) were clinically interviewed (sensu Piaget). Children's parents, workers and housewives of an Italian industrial centre, answered to questionnaires inquiring background information on parents and child and appraisal of child's level of understanding. Interview answers were classified on ten level sequences concerning father's job, home ownership, function and ownership of production means and produce. Correlational analyses and separate ANOVAs [5(age) × 2(sex) × 3(production mean)] in three subject areas (owner of production mean, of produce, and produce use) of interview answers reveal that children's ideas about different production means develop with differing rhythms through the same level sequences, which are clearly related to the general characterstics of intelligence described by Piaget. Questionnaires show that parents tend to furnish their children with the degree of information concerning jobs appropriate to the level of development at which the parents believe their children to be.

Explanations for racial discrimination: The effect of group discussion on intergroup attributions

Abstract: Studied the effect of group discussion and racial group membership on attributions concerning the causes of racial discrimination. Twenty- four Black (mostly West Indian) and 24 White adolescents (age 16-19) were assigned in pairs to each cell of a 2 (Race of subject: Black/White) × 2 (Discussion/No Discussion) ‘mixed’ design. Each subject read four items exemplifying types of racial discrimination and attributed each to negative dispositions of Black people and/or discrimination by White authority figures (‘the system’). Subjects in the Discussion condition spent two minutes discussing each item prior to making their judgements. Ratings of ingroup and outgroup on eight attitudinal dimensions were also elicited, followed by a social distance measure. Multivariate analyses of variance revealed effects for racial group membership (p < 0.05) and group discussion (p < 0.05) on attributions. Further examination of the data by means of discriminant analyses indicated which items differentiate between the groups. Data based on the attitudinal ratings were also subjected to multivariate analyses and point to the positive group-image of the Black respondents and a lack of intergroup discrimination by the White subjects; the social distance scores of the latter subjects are, however, higher. Results are discussed in terms of the literature on group polarization and intergroup differentiation.

Explanations, attributions and the social context of unexpected behaviour

Abstract: The study investigated the effect of the expectancies a perceiver holds about the occurrence of a particular behaviour and his or her familiarity with the situation in which the behaviour occurs, for the way in which an event is explained. Subjects were presented with brief descriptions of hypothetical events which varied in terms of the familiarity of the situation. Dependent variables included ratings of causality to personal and situational causes as well as open-ended explanations which were content analysed to distinguish between four different types of person and four different types of situation elements. The results showed that explanations for unexpected behaviour are more complex than for expected behaviour; that if the situation is familiar to the subject, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more person elements while if it is unfamiliar, unexpected behaviour is explained by introducing more situation elements; and that the distribution of different types of person and situation elements is affected by familiarity and expectancy.

Self-awareness and drive theory: Comparing internal standards and dominant responses

Abstract: Self awareness theory proposes that behavioural and cognitive changes following self- focused attention result from a comparison between a salient behavioural or cognitive aspect of the person and a relevant internal standard of correctness. Generalized drive has been offered as an alternative interpretation not requiring the assumption of a mediating cognitive process. The notion was tested that an internal standard of correctness, and not response dominance, guides behaviour following self-focused attention. The internal standard used, originality, was to be contrary to dominance. Subjects high or low on this standard were assigned to either a self-awareness, an arousal, or a control condition. First, response dominance was clearly established on a paired associates task. Then subjects' own associations to the stimulus words were obtained. In the self awareness condition, the originality of responses corresponded to internal standards. Responses in the arousal condition were not as predicted, but could be interpreted through the presumption that the particular operationalization of arousal raised not only drive level but also provided self-related stimuli. The data imply that internal standards of correctness and not response dominance influence the behaviour of those whose attention is self focused.

Research and publication trends in experimental social psychology: 1971–1980—a thematic analysis of the journal of experimental social psychology, the european journal of social psychology, and the zeifschrift für soziaipsychologie

Abstract: The present study was designed to map out the area of research in experimental social psychology during the past decade. First of all, we found a broad range of topics that can be grouped info 21 general content domains. Theories in Social Psychology, Group Processes and Social Interaction, Social Judgement, Personality Variables and Specific Social Behaviour as well as Attitudes were the jive most widely researched fields of study. During the ten-year period 1971–1980 Attribution Theory showed a significant increase in the number of articles published. Cooperation and Conflict as well as Risky-Ship are lines of research which have nearly been abandoned. Finally, in rigorous experimental social psychology the analysis of Social Problems is evidently underrepresented. But a survey of the literature on Social Problems in the Psychological Abstracts from 1971 to 1980 revealed that social psychologists are currently serving both theoretical and practical ends.

A two‐valued logic or two‐valued balance resolution of the challenge of agreement and attraction effects in p‐o‐x triads, and a theoretical perspective on conformity and hedonism

Abstract: Investigated the effect of three different variables on agreement effects in p-o-x triads. The subjects were 740 male and female undergraduates at the University of North Carolina. Experiment 1 found that assumed similarity modified the agreement effect—but only on cognitive rating scales (expectancy, consistency, stability). Experiment 2 found that assumed knowledgeability of o regarding × modified the agreement effect on both affective (pleasantness, harmony) and cognitive (expectancy, consistency, stability) scales. Experiment 3 found that a manipulation of o to p liking that was either consistent or inconsistent with p and o agreement modified the agreement effect primarily on the affective scales.

Moral judgment and the development of causal schemes

Abstract: The present study investigated (i) the relationship between blame and perceived causality; (ii) the effect of the nature of causes on causal inference. Seventy-two persons from three age groups (5, 9 years and adults) responded to behavioural events which varied in outcome intensity, the nature of the cause (internal/external) and its presence (present/absent). The latter two factors had a marked effect on attributed blame and inferred causes as an age × nature × presence of cause interaction was found in both cases. However, inferred causes were not systematically related to attributed blame. Outcome severity led to more extreme blame ratings in all groups but only affected the causal scheme used by adults. The results are discussed in terms of over-attribution to persons and a more precise criterion for the use of the multiple sufficient cause scheme is evaluated.

The influence of an audience upon the reactions to filmed violence

Abstract: In order to examine audience effects when viewing firmed violence, 5 to 6 year old pre-school boys who had been rated as submissive by their teachers watched an aggressive or a neutral movie either alone, accompanied by another submissive classmate, or a dominant one. Subsequent aggression against a frustrating, unknown and unseen boy was delivered via a modified Buss machine, especially adapted for children. Subjects accompanied by a dominant peer were more aggressive than the others but did not react differentially to the movies. Subjects tested alone were more aggressive after the violent film than after the neutral one and the opposite pattern occurred for the boys accompanied by a submissive classmate. These findings stress the importance of the social context when viewing filmed violence. It is suggested that the quality of the audience can have different directional (e.g. fear and aggression) as well as energizing properties. Links with the literature on social facilitation and audience effects are underlined.

Favouritism, fairness and joint profit in long term relationships.

Abstract: This study was designed to test a number of hypotheses about the use of FAV and other strategies as measured by the intergroup ‘matrices’ in four long-term relationships-with spouse, child, friend and workmate. Forty subjects filled in matrices giving three measures of self-favouritism (FAV), and one each of fairness (F) and maximum joint profit (MJP), in relation to the allocation of money and time. It was found that FAV was not used for spouse, and was used less for child than for the non-family relationships (p < 0.01, p < 0.05). There was also an influence of altruism (A) against FAV, when time was distributed between spouse (p < 0.01) or child (p < 0.001) and the self. F was used most for spouse, followed by child, friend and workmate (p < 0.001), and was used more by females in distributing money (p < 0.01). MJP was not used at all for money, but was used to some extent for time.

Social stereotypes held by different occupational groups in post-revolutionary Iran

Abstract: Studied how level of education and degree of contact with target groups affect stereotypes held by different occupational groups in post-revolutionary Iran. Male university lecturers, taxi drivers and factory workers from Isfahan—25 of each—rated target groups (Americans, English, Arabs, Iranians) on 22 seven-point trait scales. Fifteen subjects rated trait favourability. Results were analysed descriptively and by Spearman rank correlations of trait ratings across targets and trait assignments across subject groups. Stereotypes of Americans tend to be high in clarity and favourable across all three occupational groups (particularly ‘progressive’ and ‘industrious’), with the English somewhat less so. In contrast, Arabs are viewed highly unfavourable (‘lazy’, ‘happy-go-lucky’, ‘not industrious’). Autostereotypes are less consistent; the lecturers—educated in the West—are most unfavourable. It was concluded that low education and little personal contact lead to more extreme hetero-stereotype, the reverse being true for (negative) autostereotype. Also, it seems that saturated media coverage does not necessarily have much effect on social stereotypes.

The effects of social comparison on ability evaluations

Abstract: Investigated the effects of comparisons with similar and dissimilar performances on estimates of relative ability. Male and female undergraduates (n = 162) took a test of analogy-making ability, and received veridical feedback about their own performance and manipulated feedback about the scores of other college students. Supporting Festinger's similarity hypothesis, variations within a range of small discrepancies between self and others' scores produced significant changes in ability estimates, while variations within a range of large discrepancies had no significant impact. This pattern of results only held for discrepancies relative to the modal score of others, and not relative to their highest or lowest scores. There were also indications that subjects with average performances were less influenced by the comparison feedback than were subjects with low or high scores. The discussion focused on the similarities and contrasts between seeking comparison information versus being influenced by it.