Showing papers in "European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research in 2021"

From “Angels” to “Vice Smugglers”: the Criminalization of Sea Rescue NGOs in Italy

Abstract: Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played a crucial role in conducting Search and Rescue (SAR) operations off the Libyan coast, assisting almost 120,000 migrants between 2014 and 2019. Their activities, however, have been increasingly criticized. The accusation that NGOs facilitate irregular migration has escalated into investigations by Italian and Maltese courts and various policy initiatives restricting non-governmental ships and their access to European ports. Although all NGOs investigated to date have been acquitted, the combination of criminal investigations and policy restrictions that has taken place in Italy since 2017 has severely hindered non-governmental SAR operations. Given the humanitarian repercussions of reducing NGOs’ presence at sea, the merits and shortcomings of the arguments underlying the criminalization of non-governmental maritime rescue warrant in-depth research. To that end, this article fulfils two interrelated tasks. First, it provides a genealogy of the accusation against NGOs and the ensuing combination of legal criminalization, policy restrictions, and social stigmatization in restraining their activities. Second, it uses quantitative data to show that empirically verifiable accusations like the claim that NGOs serve as a pull factor of migration, thereby causing more people to day at sea, are not supported by available evidence. By doing so, our study sheds new light onto the criminalization of humanitarianism and its implications.

The ‘Exposed’ Population, Violent Crime in Public Space and the Night-time Economy in Manchester, UK

Abstract: The daily rhythms of the city, the ebb and flow of people undertaking routines activities, inform the spatial and temporal patterning of crime. Being able to capture citizen mobility and delineate a crime-specific population denominator is a vital prerequisite of the endeavour to both explain and address crime. This paper introduces the concept of an exposed population-at-risk, defined as the mix of residents and non-residents who may play an active role as an offender, victim or guardian in a specific crime type, present in a spatial unit at a given time. This definition is deployed to determine the exposed population-at-risk for violent crime, associated with the night-time economy, in public spaces. Through integrating census data with mobile phone data and utilising fine-grained temporal and spatial violent crime data, the paper demonstrates the value of deploying an exposed (over an ambient) population-at-risk denominator to determine violent crime in public space hotspots on Saturday nights in Greater Manchester (UK). In doing so, the paper illuminates that as violent crime in public space rises, over the course of a Saturday evening, the exposed population-at-risk falls, implying a shifting propensity of the exposed population-at-risk to perform active roles as offenders, victims and/or guardians. The paper concludes with a discussion of the theoretical and policy relevance of these findings.

Nationality-Based Criminalisation of South-South Migration: the Experience of Venezuelan Forced Migrants in Peru.

Abstract: This article examines how Venezuelan forced migrants in Peru experience xenophobic discrimination, which has become increasingly linked to their criminalisation as thieves and murderers. Based on 12 months of qualitative fieldwork, including 72 in-depth interviews, five focus groups, and a survey (N116) in five Peruvian cities, we explore how Venezuelans experience, and make sense of, discrimination and criminalisation in everyday life. First, we discuss how criminalisation compares to general xenophobic discrimination, and other types of discrimination experiences. Second, we juxtapose the prevalence of xenophobic discrimination and criminalisation experiences across the five cities of our study, and between public spaces and the workspace. We then move to the qualitative discussion of the criminalisation experience in these different spaces. Fourth, we discuss how Venezuelan migrants perceive this criminalising discrimination as linked to their villanisation in the media and political discourses. Finally, we discuss our findings and make suggestion for further research. The paper contributes to the literature on migrant criminalisation by exploring how criminalisation processes play out in the context of large-scale intraregional forced displacement in the global South.

How International Are the Top International Journals of Criminology and Criminal Justice

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to assess the level of international, non-Anglo-American involvement in the editorial boards and content of the leading international journals of criminology and criminal law to investigate a reported bias against non-Anglo-American material. The research employed editorial board and content analysis of ten leading journals of criminology and criminal law, selected because of their international involvement according to their own aims and scope’s description. Most of the ten journals were found to have low levels of international involvement, with high proportions of both Anglo-American authors and data, and Anglo-American membership of editorial boards. The editorial board analysis also revealed institutional links with journal boards and a network of overlapping membership between the editorial boards. This suggests the existence of networks of Anglo-American scholars who are naturally inclined to favour research that fits their worldview. Such networks create a hierarchy of knowledge that favours the one produced in the US and the UK and promotes the scientific success of Anglo-American scholars and contents. However, although the shadow of Anglo-American dominance continues to lie over the two fields, there is also evidence of increasing research and authorship diversity. Perhaps, we are entering a new era of research internationalism.

Choosing a Smuggler: Decision-making Amongst Migrants Smuggled to Europe

Abstract: This paper explores how transactions between smugglers and migrants come about in the context of irregular migration. We first offer some theoretical reflections on the challenges that such a context poses to both parties—smugglers and migrants—and point to three main conditions under which smuggling transactions take place: illegality, asymmetrical information and low trust. Next, we explore the strategies that migrants and smugglers alike may employ to overcome these challenges. We focus on three broad sets of strategies related to information-gathering, to information-checking (reputation and the role of physical and virtual communities) and to developing substitutes for trust (guarantees, escrow services and hostage-taking strategies a la Thomas Schelling). To illustrate our reasoning, we draw on examples from published works as well as from a novel set of 43 qualitative interviews with migrants recently smuggled to Europe. Such interviews were carried out in a destination country (England) and in a transit country (Greece). Evidence from this work supports previous calls to move away from a simplistic “predator-victim” discourse.

Studying Illegal Online Trades in Plants: Market Characteristics, Organisational and Behavioural Aspects, and Policing Challenges

Abstract: Illegal commerce in plants and their derivatives threatens and destroys numerous species and important natural resources, and may cause phytosanitary and health problems. This illegal trade, which has been boosted by the commercialisation of the Internet, has been relatively overlooked in criminological research. Furthermore, the policing of illegal plant markets remains limited and poorly resourced, with law enforcement agencies lacking awareness and technical capacity in investigation and prosecution services. Based on semi-structured interviews with law enforcement officers and other relevant experts, this study, developed in the context of the ESRC-funded project “FloraGuard: Tackling the illegal trade in endangered plants” offers an analysis of the characteristics of illegal online trading in plants and of the actors operating therein, of current policing practices, and identification of the main challenges to be addressed to better assist law enforcement. It concludes by offering practical recommendations to curb this illegal market.

Prison Inspection and Monitoring: The Need to Reform European Law and Policy

Abstract: Prison inspection and monitoring bodies are important safeguards against breaches of human rights. In recent years, prison inspection and monitoring has become a key focus for international human rights standards, particularly through the introduction of the Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture (OPCAT) and the UN’s Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners, which recognize the need for robust and effective systems of prison oversight. This article contends that European legal standards on inspection and monitoring have not kept pace with international developments. The content of European law concerning domestic-level prison inspection and monitoring is not clear, nor has it been consolidated or examined in depth. Through engaging in comparative analysis with international instruments, this article analyses standards promulgated by Council of Europe and European Union bodies on inspection and monitoring, arguing that they need reform in light of international developments. Taking the opportunity presented by the revision process for the European Prison Rules and associated commentary, the article proposes improvements to European legal frameworks. It welcomes proposals for stronger powers for inspection and monitoring bodies, advocates for a specific instrument on prison inspection and monitoring and calls for more empirical understanding of how such bodies operate in practice.

Cell Towers and the Ambient Population: a Spatial Analysis of Disaggregated Property Crime

Abstract: As a crime rate denominator, the ambient population has seen very limited use in a multivariate context. The current study employs a new measure of this population, constructed using cell tower location data from OpenCellID, to compare residential and ambient population-based crime rates. The chosen study area is Vancouver, BC, but the conclusions generalize to other administrations and the OpenCellID data have global coverage so the implications are applicable elsewhere. Five disaggregated property crime types are examined at the dissemination area level. Findings demonstrate striking differences in the spatial patterns of crime rates constructed using these two different measures of the population at risk. Multivariate results from spatial error models also highlight the substantial impact that the use of a theoretically informed crime rate denominator can have on pseudo R2 values, variable retention, and trends in significant relationships. Implications for theory testing and policy are discussed. In particular, the results suggest that policies designed around residential-based crime rates risk having no effect, or even of increasing crime.

Trafficking and Technology: Exploring the Role of Digital Communication Technologies in the Belgian Human Trafficking Business

Abstract: Over the past few years, the agenda-topping issue of human trafficking is increasingly bracketed with the use of digital technologies. Though the trafficking-technology nexus is a growing area of public and policy concern, as far as empirical research is concerned, the subject is still a relatively open field. As a result, quite a few unknowns regarding the interaction between technological developments and trafficking in persons remain unresolved. In this context, the present research paper principally aims to build on the existent body of literature in order to broaden our comprehension of the matter at hand. Based on a systematic literature review and interviews with convicted offenders as well as anti-trafficking practitioners in Belgium, this paper presents an overview of the various ways in which technology can be leveraged both in the perpetration and the counteraction of human trafficking activities. In addition, the question of how technology relates to the traditional workings of trafficking is considered from a cyber-criminological point of view. That is, a connection is drawn between the use of technological tools by human traffickers and our current understanding of the business of trafficking in persons.

The Back-Door Governance of Crime: Confiscating Criminal Assets in the UK

Abstract: The policy and practice of confiscating criminal assets to control crime and recover illicit wealth has come to occupy a central position in national and international policing and security agendas. However, this practice has raised many questions about agencies’ abilities to measure success and also the social impacts of asset confiscation. This article contributes to the crime control debates by exploring contemporary literature and drawing upon a subset of data from the Joint Asset Recovery Database (JARD). The first part of the article briefly outlines the key legislative provisions of asset recovery in the UK. The second part explores what the JARD data tells us about the performance of the confiscation of proceeds of crime approach and it will argue that seizing illicit wealth has not been the main priority for government. It will argue instead that the proceeds of crime approach, originally designed to target the most serious and organised crime, has effectively become a disciplining and symbolic tool against relatively lower level acquisitive crimes. It concludes that while technical measures of impact remain inconclusive, it is more important to subject the ideological underpinnings of the proceeds of crime law to critical scrutiny.

Picking ‘Low-Hanging Fruit’ While the Orchard Burns: the Costs of Policing Humanitarian Actors in Italy and Greece as a Strategy to Prevent Migrant Smuggling

Abstract: Civil society organizations and individual volunteers were in many instances the first responders to the so-called ‘European humanitarian refugee crisis’. From 2015 onwards, they were celebrated by some as heroes. Meanwhile, during this same period, national and EU law enforcement agencies served to relabel civil society actors across a range of contexts as potential ‘migrant smugglers’–direct facilitators of conduits of irregular migrant flows, or a pull-factor by default through their services. The shift in rhetoric was met with a shift in policing practices: in Italy and Greece, among other EU member states, humanitarian acts were reframed from life-saving obligations to be met and commended, to administrative–and in some cases—criminal risks to be monitored, deterred and punished. This article builds on previous research to consider how since 2018, civil society actors in Italy and Greece have faced increasing demands and pressures for registration, coordination and financial transparency, and how these have profound repercussions on humanitarian and human rights work with, for and by refugees and other migrants. The article outlines four main opportunity costs of the policing of humanitarian actors as a strategy to prevent mobility of refugees and other migrants. Firstly, such measures pose a threat to civil society’s independence and impartiality from government interference; in doing so, they impact the efficiency of operations and disincentivize certain humanitarian actors from conducting life-saving work. Secondly, they have repercussions on trust between the law enforcement and civil society which may lessen the chances of migrants and those that serve them from sharing crucial information to stop and investigate ongoing violent crimes. Thirdly, this strategy leads to the politicization of the criminal justice system which undermines public faith in liberal democracy. Finally, resources channelled into investigating civil society actors funnel away resources from the focus on high-profile criminality. Given the pervasive human rights abuses committed against irregular migrants and asylum seekers, we argue that this misdirected policy equates to picking ‘low-hanging fruit’ while the orchard burns.

The Czech Rhino Connection: a Case Study of Vietnamese Wildlife Trafficking Networks’ Operations Across Central Europe

Abstract: This article focuses on the trafficking segment of the illegal wildlife market, or more specifically on organised trafficking in rhino horns from South Africa to Vietnam via the Czech Republic Composed as a criminological case study, the article analyses how the wildlife trafficking networks were established by Vietnamese nationals in cooperation with providers in Africa and Central Europe, how they operate by crossing national borders and ethnic barriers, and how the illegal wildlife trade is incorporated into the Vietnamese criminal activities in Central Europe Two important cases of rhino “pseudo-hunting” that were investigated by the Czech security forces, Operation Rhino and Operation Osseus, are discussed in this context

Intimate Partner Homicide in Portugal: What Are the (As)Symmetries Between Men and Women?

Abstract: There is consensus that intimate partner homicide (IPH) is a gender crime and that it is one of the most extreme forms of violence. This study aims to identify the differences and similarities between men and women who committed IPH. Data were collected from 75 criminal cases: 12 homicides perpetrated by women against men and 63 by men against women. At the individual level, homicidal women and men showed previous criminal records, substance abuse and psychiatric disorders. The intimate relationships were similar: regarding its duration, they were underway at the time of the IPH, they had a history of previous separations and reconciliations, and also, they had history of abusive dynamics. Regarding the modus operandi of IPH, the victims were mainly killed in the house of the victim and/or the aggressor, usually with a white armour weapon or a firearm and under the influence of substances. Nevertheless, there were specific differentiating factors. Men who committed murder were described as the primary aggressors (79%), while the women who committed murder (46%) were previously documented as victims of intimate partner violence. Attempted suicide/suicide after the homicide was proven in 38% of the IPH offender men, with no women having committed or attempted suicide. The time elapsed between the homicide and the judicial sentence was six times higher for women, and the length of imprisonment was on average three times higher for men. Most of the men were convicted of first-degree murder, while the women were mostly convicted of second-degree murder. Practical implications of the results are discussed.

Mapping Activist Responses and Policy Advocacy for Street Harassment: Current Practice and Future Directions

Abstract: This article presents findings from a comprehensive mapping exercise of activist responses to, and policy advocacy for, street harassment across the US, UK and Australia. Analysis of activist groups found that the bulk of responses constituted forms of “awareness raising” and documenting the experiences of victims, suggesting that current advocacy is largely situated within the “problem identification” phase of policy development. The extent and focus of activism and advocacy efforts varied across the three locations, with the responses advocated for shaped by local concerns and politics. In particular, activist groups diverged in their support for criminal justice responses to street harassment. Where policy and other initiatives have been developed, these have rarely been evaluated, and there is a clear need to establish an evidence base to better support future policy and practice developments.

The Influence of Intra-Daily Activities and Settings upon Weekday Violent Crime in Public Spaces in Manchester, UK

Abstract: People ebb and flow across the city. The spatial and temporal patterning of crime is, in part, reflective of this mobility, of the scale of the population present in any given setting at a particular time. It is also a function of capacity of this population to perform an active role as an offender, victim or guardian in any specific crime type, itself shaped by the time-variant activities undertaken in, and the qualities of, particular settings. To this end, this paper explores the intra-daily influence of activities and settings upon the weekday spatial and temporal patterning of violent crime in public spaces. This task is achieved through integrating a transient population dataset with travel survey, point-of-interest and recorded crime data in a study of Great Manchester (UK). The research deploys a negative binomial regression model controlling for spatial lag effects. It finds strong and independent, but time-variant, associations between leisure activities, leisure settings and the spatial and temporal patterning of violent crime in public space. The paper concludes by discussing the theoretical and empirical implications of these findings.

Interdicting International Drug Trafficking: a Network Approach for Coordinated and Targeted Interventions

Abstract: There is a relative dearth of literature on both the effects of cross-border interdictions and the impact of different types of interventions on international drug trafficking. This study identifies the main trafficking routes for cocaine and heroin, along with comparing the disruptive effects induced by targeted and non-coordinated interventions. It adopts a social network approach to identify the routes along which cocaine and heroin are trafficked, and then simulates the impact of different interdiction strategies on these two trafficking networks. The findings indicate that targeting countries based on their respective positions in the networks, as opposed to on the basis of the quantity of drugs exchanged, is more likely to disrupt drug flows. More specifically, concentrating law enforcement resources on countries with several incoming or outgoing trafficking connections, or those countries that mediate between producer, transit and consumer countries, would appear to be particularly effective in this regard. Interventions focused on specific trafficking routes are also likely to be effective if these routes have high edge betweenness centrality scores. This study contributes to extant understanding on the vulnerability of cocaine and heroin international trafficking networks, and, moreover, demonstrates that empirically-driven strategies are potentially more effective at interdicting international trafficking than non-strategic and non-coordinated interventions.

“They Steal Our Work”: Wage Theft and the Criminalization of Immigrant Day Laborers in Colorado, USA

Abstract: Latino immigrant day laborers are among the most vulnerable populations in the USA, frequently subject to work-related abuses such as wage theft in violation of federal and state labor laws. Despite legal reforms to facilitate wage recovery for low-wage workers and to recognize wage theft as a crime, this article draws on over two years of community-based research to show how day laborers face challenges mobilizing their legal rights and holding employers accountable for the crimes they suffer owing to their own criminalization and devaluation in US society. Contributing to harms-based approaches in critical criminology, it explores how individual legal remedies or criminal justice responses can risk obscuring the ways that wage theft is embedded along a continuum of legal and illegal exploitative labor practices that are normalized and maintained by the broader degradation of work and the criminalization of immigration.

How useful is the concept of transit migration in an intra-Schengen mobility context? Diving into the migrant smuggling and human trafficking nexus in search for answers

Abstract: When using the concept of transit migration, contemporary scholarly literature and policy documents typically refer to situations located outside or at the outskirts of the European Union. By analyzing the critical and empirical scholarship which uncovers the so-called gray area where it becomes hard to make clear distinctions that can be found at the nexus between migrant smuggling and human trafficking, the article aims to shed new light on the real-life vulnerabilities and dynamics that do not fit prototypical legal categories of either human trafficking or migrant smuggling. In so doing, the article discusses and analyzes legal and empirical scholarship that uncovers these vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities observed are likely to be further enhanced in transit zones where stranded individuals within the EU aim to continue their (increasingly) fragmented/non-linear migration journeys. Therefore, the article proposes to consider the usefulness and the usage of the notion of “transit migration” in the context of Intra-Schengen border mobility and not just when discussing external border mobility. The article argues that the concept of transit migration, if carefully defined, and if particular vulnerabilities found in transit space are recognized, can serve as a helpful lens that can prevent falling into the trap of conceiving migrant smuggling and human trafficking as strictly separate phenomena.

Does the Association Between Flows of People and Crime Differ Across Crime Types in Sweden

Abstract: Places with persistently high levels of crime, hot spots, are an important object of study. To some extent, the high levels of crime at such hot spots are likely to be related to flows of people. City center locations with large flows of people are quite often also hot spots, e.g., hot spots for pick pocketing at a central train station, or hot spots for assault in the nightlife district. This can be related to crime pattern theory, or to the routine activity perspective, which both suggest that flows of people can affect crime. The present study attempts to explore and quantify whether there are differences in the association between flows of people and crime for different crime types. The analysis considers locations with high crime counts for six crime types in the city of Malmo, Sweden. For each crime type, hot spots are identified and mapped, and in order to explore whether, or how, these are related to flows of people, the crime levels are then analyzed in relation to the number of people who boarded a local bus (N = 33,134,198) nearby. The paper shows that all six crime types are associated with flows of people, although less so for arson and vandalism. This is hypothesized to be due to the relatively constant target availability for these crimes as opposed to the other crime types studied.

Hate Crime Reporting: The Relationship Between Types of Barriers and Perceived Severity

Abstract: Previous research has identified numerous barriers to reporting hate crimes. However, high variability exists in the outcome measures considered across multiple studies, including whether hate crimes encompass non-criminal behaviours, whether victims’ perceptions are considered bias indicators, and whether the incident is reported to police or to other organisations. These inconsistencies prevent an understanding of whether different barriers relate to different types of hate crimes. This article presents the results of an exploratory empirical study with a convenience sample of members of minorities facing hate crime victimisation in Victoria, Australia (N = 260). Our study participants experienced different types of barriers regarding incidents with different levels of perceived severity. Internalisation and lack of knowledge were more relevant to the underreporting of incidents perceived as less serious—verbal assault. Fear of consequences, lack of trust in statutory agencies, and accessibility were more relevant to the underreporting of incidents perceived as more serious—physical violence and property destruction.

Subway Station Closures and Robbery Hot Spots in New York City—Understanding Mobility Factors and Crime Reduction

Abstract: This paper takes advantage of a natural experiment involving subway station closures to examine how subway ridership is associated with the impact of robbery victimization within spatial network buffers immediately surrounding subway stations in Bronx (County), New York. The New York City subway system is the busiest in the USA, with an annual ridership estimated at 1.8 billion people. Key findings of this research include noteworthy relationships between robbery hot spots and subway stations, as well as substantial reductions in robbery frequency during temporary subway station closures, with larger reductions occurring in closer proximities to the subway stations. There was also a significant robbery pattern “normalization process” that occurred after the closed subway stations were reopened where robbery frequency returned to historically “normal” pre-closure levels. These notable decreases of crime in and around subway stations during the station closure time periods, as well as the prominent increases in robbery when subway stations reopened, should be taken into consideration when planning transit maintenance, conducting crime prevention initiatives, and scheduling crime control strategies.

Men Victims of Stalking in Portugal: Predictors of Help-Seeking Behaviours

Abstract: Stalking is commonly perceived as a gendered crime, predominantly affecting women as victims. However, males can also be victims of this crime. Research has found that men may experience different types of behaviours and their coping and help-seeking may be unique due to individual, interpersonal, sociocultural factors and traditional gender stereotypes that shape perceptions about the seriousness of the crime and whether and/or where victims seek help. Nevertheless, no research has linked these findings to male victims of stalking. Therefore, the present study used a subsample of Portuguese men (n = 76), with a mean age of 40.49 (DP = 18.14), who self-identified as victims of stalking. The objectives were to analyse their experiences of victimization, namely behaviours, dynamics, impact and help-seeking. Moreover, another major goal of the current study was to develop a model to predict the circumstances under which male victims of stalking seek help. Results revealed that when male stalking victims search for help, it is more likely they are dealing with a higher diversity of stalking behaviours and experiencing a greater negative impact on their lives. These findings have important implications for practitioners and underlines macro-level social recommendations for raising awareness about this underreported phenomenon.

Enforcement Intensity in Danish Drug Control, 1996–2017

Abstract: Enforcement intensity towards drug law offences in Denmark has increased since 2004, making Denmark one of the few Western countries that is heading towards a more repressive drug control approach. The aim of this study is to examine patterns and correlates of drug enforcement intensity over time. Policy documents and criminal statistics on drug law offences, from 1996 to 2017, are analysed in the context of the rationality perspective and the theory of policy coherence. Time series analyses and bivariate tests of statistical significance are used to examine enforcement intensity over time, between seasons, and in the gender and ethnic composition of convictions. Three periods are identified, delineated by documents that set forth drug policy aims. From 1996 to 2003, a series of qualitative changes to the legal framework was introduced, followed by a quantitative increase in enforcement pressure from 2004 to 2010 with a focus on Copenhagen. From 2011 to 2017, other regions of the country also increased enforcement. The increased intensity in drug control followed a period of increasing cannabis prevalence rates. The increase in reported minor drug law offences correlated with increased seasonal variations and increased disparity in the gender and ethnicity of convicted individuals.

Policing Directions: a Systematic Review on the Effectiveness of Police Presence

Abstract: We systematically review the effectiveness of police presence. In doing so, we investigate concepts of police presence and differences between reported effects. Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and protocols, we systematically identify and review eligible studies on police presence. Further, quality assessment and findings synthesis are used to map limitations of current research as well as grounds for future avenues. The systematic search strategies yielded 49 studies focusing on testing the effects of police presence or evaluating its measurement. We find evidence that police presence has mostly crime reduction effects on crimes related to motor theft, property, violence and guns. Police presence also reduces calls for service and improves traffic behaviour. Police presence focused on specific areas, times and types of crime achieves maximum effectiveness. The reviewed studies show a high degree of heterogeneity in reporting which limits comparability of findings across studies. Research on police presence presents evidence for significant crime preventative effects of focused police actions and shows strongest effects when focused on certain areas, times, or types of crimes. We encourage future research to focus on police presence en route and its effects, including crime prevention, traffic regulation and fear of crime.

Cybercrime Victimisation and Polyvictimisation in Finland—Prevalence and Risk Factors

Abstract: This study examines the prevalence of different types of cybercrime victimisation and their shared risk factors among the population of Finland. We examine how respondents’ socio-economic background variables, past offline victimisation experiences, online activity, user skills, and protective measures impact the risk of the most common forms of online victimisation and online polyvictimisation. Our nationally representative survey data were collected from 5455 Finns aged 15 to 74 years (response rate 39%) as part of the Finnish National Crime Survey in 2018. According to our findings, the five most common forms of victimisation were malware, harassment, sexual harassment, hacking, and fraud. Online routines and exposure to potential offenders, along with past offline victimisation experiences, served as notable risk factors for a range of different victimisation experiences online. Our findings show slightly different SES risk factors for victimisation of different online offences, thereby indicating the diverse nature of different types of online victimisation. Our findings also show that young age, better financial situation, high internet use, and user skills, along with past offline victimisation of property crime and violence, associate with increased risk of online polyvictimisation. High user protection decreased the risk of online polyvictimisation.

Exploring Prison Misconduct and the Factors Influencing Rule Infraction in Northern Ireland

Abstract: Research has linked prison misconduct to reoffending and re-entry experiences, yet no studies have sought to examine the factors influencing misconduct in Northern Ireland or if these factors operate differently for separated prisoners (those claiming their offences are politically motivated and demanding to be held separately to the rest of the prison population) compared to the general prison population. This study addresses this gap by examining the characteristics related to misconduct in Northern Ireland. Using a cross-sectional sample of 892 imprisoned adult men, the findings indicate that increased involvement in misconduct is associated with multiple needs. Younger age, racial/ethnic identity, accommodation issues, addiction, impairments, property offences, previous incarceration, prison complaints, not having a drug test and engagement/suspected engagement in serious self-harm while imprisoned increased the risk of misconduct. Reporting a nationality other than British, Irish or Northern Irish, passing prison drug tests and prison visitation lowered the risk of misconduct. Factors were found to operate in a similar manner for both the general prison population and separated prisoners, with the exception of prison complaints. Given the link between misconduct and reoffending, it is argued that specialist supports are required to address the multiple needs of those who frequently engage in misconduct if efforts to reduce recidivism are to be enhanced.

The Dynamics of Thefts and Robberies in São Paulo’s Metro, Brazil

Abstract: The aim of this study is to assess the nature and space-temporal dynamics of property crimes (theft and robbery) in transport nodes, namely, metro stations and their immediate surrounding areas. The analysis is based on crime data over Sao Paulo’s metro system from 2010 to 2017. Drawing from environmental criminology theory, the methodology combines geographical information system (GIS) as well as statistical analysis using hypothesis testing and negative binomial regression models. Results show that thefts happen more often inside the station and robberies outside, with signs of possible interaction between these environments. Crime is often highly concentrated in a few inner city and end stations, but it varies depending on location and time. Future research and policy implications of the results add to the contribution of this current study.

Criminalisation of migration for domestic work from Myanmar to Singapore—need for a radical policy shift

Abstract: Between 2014 and April 2019, the government of Myanmar banned international migration for domestic work to Singapore and criminalised the brokering of such migration as well as predeparture training and placement of migrants as domestic workers in Singapore. These measures were taken in response to concerns over the alleged abuse of migrant women as well as international pressures to eliminate trafficking and debt bondage. Experienced brokers and recruitment agencies who were trading openly up until then were forced to cease operations. At the same time, large numbers of inexperienced and uncouth recruitment agencies emerged to take advantage of the black economy created by the ban. This resulted in women migrating irregularly from Myanmar to Singapore being exposed to greater risks which the paper traces. Four discernible impacts of the ban on the recruitment practices and working conditions faced by migrant women from Myanmar before departure and after arriving in Singapore were identified: a sharp increase in migration and placement costs, inadequate predeparture training, placement in forced labour conditions with extended and unclear repayment periods and no access to support from the Myanmar government while in Singapore. Although the ban has since been lifted, the resulting migration system had placed workers in conditions of extreme exploitation with little recourse to justice or having their voices heard. The paper ends by summarizing the unanticipated negative consequences of the criminalisation of migration brokerage in Myanmar and lessons for other countries that may be considering controls on female migration.

A Biographical Perspective on Processes of Radicalisation

Abstract: This article reconstructs four ideal types of biographical self-descriptions outlining radicalisation processes that are based on longitudinal biographical interviews conducted with male (former) right-wing extremists. In the first self-description, the biographers explain how they were born into radicalised families whose ideological norms and values they adopted without question. The second self-description outlines how the biographers’ actions were guided by a longing for stability and community. Initially, ideology plays a tangential role, with involvement in Kameradschaften and violence providing key momentum. In the third self-description, biographers refer to their German heritage and glorify National Socialism. They see themselves as guardians of the German Volk, and partly resort to violence to defend this idea. The fourth self-description outlines engagement with right-wing extremism as an outlet for frustrations with social discrimination. During our analysis, we examine whether any of these ideal types also correspond to self-descriptions given by Islamists, concluding that the latter do indeed describe their pathways into radicalisation in a similar manner.

Unravelling the Homicide Drop: Disaggregating a 25-Year Homicide Trend in the Netherlands

Abstract: The Western homicide drop is a known fact, but the reasons behind the drop have so far mainly focused on macro explanations. In this study, we argue that to understand the homicide drop, it is necessary to first explore whether the drop is general or specific. We do this by examining the subtypes of homicide together with perpetrator and victim demographic characteristics. This study seeks to describe the nature and scope of homicidal violence in the period 1992–2016 in the Netherlands, disaggregating by subtype of homicide, and perpetrator and victim gender constellation and age. In doing so, we make use of the Dutch Homicide Monitor. Findings show that the Dutch homicide drop is significantly related to homicides resulting from disputes and robberies and intimate partner homicides. The gender constellation and age distribution in all homicide types are further explored. This study highlights the importance of disaggregating data by subtype in unravelling the homicide drop.