Showing papers in "Food Security in 2016"
TL;DR: In this article, the degree to which the informal sector remains the core for seed acquisition, especially in Africa, has been investigated, showing that farmers access 90.2 % of their seed from informal systems with 50.9 % of that deriving from local markets.
Abstract: Seed can be an important entry point for promoting productivity, nutrition and resilience among smallholder farmers. While investments have primarily focused on strengthening the formal sector, this article documents the degree to which the informal sector remains the core for seed acquisition, especially in Africa. Conclusions drawn from a uniquely comprehensive data set, 9660 observations across six countries and covering 40 crops, show that farmers access 90.2 % of their seed from informal systems with 50.9 % of that deriving from local markets. Further, 55 % of seed is paid for by cash, indicating that smallholders are already making important investments in this arena. Targeted interventions are proposed for rendering formal and informal seed sector more smallholder-responsive and for scaling up positive impacts.
224 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors argue that the main value of resilience lies in its integrative nature, which facilitates greater collaboration between traditionally disparate groups and communities of practices, and stress some of the key conceptual and practical challenges that we face when trying to operationalise and measure resilience.
Abstract: With the developing world increasingly exposed to severe shocks and stresses, a growing number of international development agencies have now adopted resilience building as a critical long-term objective for their programmes. This paper explores the potential for this concept in the context of food security and nutrition but the reflection extends to development interventions more generally. Resilience is a rich concept, and has at its core the notion of complex dynamic processes that aptly describes the nature and dynamics of vulnerability and changes as they affect the developing world. The paper argues that the main value of resilience lies in its integrative nature, which facilitates greater collaboration between traditionally disparate groups and communities of practices. The paper also stresses some of the key conceptual and practical challenges that we face when trying to operationalise and measure resilience.
147 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the effect of household education attainment on food security among poor urban households and found that the probability of being food insecure decreased by 0.019 for a unit increase in the average years of schooling for a given household.
Abstract: Poverty and food insecurity continue to feature prominently in the global agenda, with particularly close attention being paid to the determinants of food insecurity. However, the effect of education is mixed and remains understudied in low income countries. Using longitudinal data collected between 2007 and 2012 in Kenya, we investigated the effect of household education attainment on food security among poor urban households. Household food security was constructed from a set of four key items while education was the average years of schooling for individuals aged 18 years and above in a household. To determine the association between education attainment and food security, we fitted a random effects generalised ordered probit model. The prevalence of severe food insecurity ranged from 49 % in 2008 to 35 % in 2012. The ordered probit results showed a significant effect of education on food security. The probability of being food insecure decreased by 0.019 for a unit increase in the average years of schooling for a given household. The effect of education, remained significant even after controlling for household wealth index, a more proximate determinant of food security in a cash-based economy such as the urban slums. The findings highlight the need to focus on the food security status of the urban poor. Specifically, results suggest the need for programs aimed at reducing food insecurity among the urban poor and enhancing household livelihoods. In addition, investment in the education of the slum households may, in the long term, contribute to reduction in the prevalence of food insecurity.
122 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors tried to understand local people's perceptions of climate change, its impacts on agriculture and household food security, and local adaptation strategies in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, using data from 8083 households (HHs) from four river sub-basins (SBs), i.e. Upper Indus (Pakistan), Eastern Brahmaputra (India), Koshi (Nepal), and Salween and Mekong (China).
Abstract: This study attempts to understand local people’s perceptions of climate change, its impacts on agriculture and household food security, and local adaptation strategies in the Hindu-Kush Himalayan (HKH) region, using data from 8083 households (HHs) from four river sub-basins (SBs), i.e. Upper Indus (Pakistan), Eastern Brahmaputra (India), Koshi (Nepal) and Salween and Mekong (China). The majority of households in SBs, in recent years, have perceived that there have been more frequent incidences of floods, landslides, droughts, livestock diseases and crop pests, and have attributed these to climate change. These changes have led to low agricultural production and income, particularly in Eastern Brahmaputra (EB) where a substantial proportion of HHs reported a decline in the production of almost all staple and cash crops, resulting in very low farm income. Consequently, households’ dependency on external food items supplied from plain areas has increased, particularly in the Upper Indus (UI) and EB. After hazards, households face transitory food insecurity owing to damage to their local food systems and livelihood sources, and constrained food supply from other areas. To cope with these, HHs in SBs make changes in their farming practices and livestock management. In EB, 11 % of HHs took on new off-farm activities within the SB and in SM, 23 % of HHs chose out-migration as an adaptation strategy. Lastly, the study proposes policy instruments for attaining sustainable food security, based on agro-ecological potential and opportunities for increasing agricultural resilience and diversity of livelihoods.
88 citations
TL;DR: Pearl millet has high nutritional value in terms of high levels of energy, dietary fibre, proteins with a balanced amino acid profile, many essential minerals, some vitamins, and antioxidants, and there is great potential for harnessing these positive attributes through genetic improvement, improved crop management, and grain processing and food products technologies.
Abstract: Pearl millet is a major cereal in the arid and semi-arid regions of Asia and Africa. It is primarily cultivated for grain production, but its stover is also valued as dry fodder. Pearl millet is resilient to climate change due to its inherent adaptability to drought and high temperatures. It is also tolerant of saline and acid soils, and is well adapted to marginal lands with low productivity. Pearl millet germplasm exhibits large genetic variability for yield components; and various agronomic, adaptation and nutritional traits. Open pollinated varieties and hybrids are two important cultivar options, but higher productivity is realized through hybrids. Pearl millet has fewer pest and disease problems compared to other cereals and is suited to different cropping systems. It is highly responsive to improved crop management practices, as witnessed in parts of India where it is grown as an irrigated summer crop that produces higher yields and better quality grain. Pearl millet has high nutritional value in terms of high levels of energy, dietary fibre, proteins with a balanced amino acid profile, many essential minerals, some vitamins, and antioxidants. These play a significant role in prevention of important human ailments such as diabetes, cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. There is great potential for harnessing these positive attributes through genetic improvement, improved crop management, and grain processing and food products technologies. These should help to develop greater global awareness of the importance of this crop for food and nutritional security.
87 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the nexus between farm production diversification and household diet diversity using data collected in 2011 for evaluation of the welfare and economic impacts of Kenya's Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (CT-OVC).
Abstract: Starting with a conceptual framework adapted from Herforth and Harris (2013), we analyzed the nexus between farm production diversification and household diet diversity using data collected in 2011 for evaluation of the welfare and economic impacts of Kenya’s Cash Transfer for Orphans and Vulnerable Children (CT-OVC). We used a sample of 1,353 households drawn from six districts of western Kenya to test the hypotheses that on-farm production diversification correlates with household diet diversification and some production activities have stronger association with diet diversification than others in the context of ultra-poor, labor constrained families living in rural Kenya. Approximately 67 % of the sample households received cash transfers through the CT-OVC programme. Production diversification was positively and significantly associated with household diet diversification, with livestock ownership more strongly correlated than crop production. Poultry production had the most compelling correlation, followed by pulses. In both cases, the association was most plausibly attributed to an income effect rather than production-for-own consumption. These findings suggest that supporting investments in diversified livelihood systems in general and in small livestock assets such as poultry, sheep and goats in particular are viable interventions for the improvement of household food security and nutrition for very poor, marginalized smallholders. Under semi-autarkic smallholder agriculture, a diversification strategy, which integrates crop and livestock production, not only adds value directly via increasing diet diversity and quality and indirectly via income effects but also serves as a risk management instrument, protecting against weather and market shocks, and contributing to biodiversity and sustainable land management.
71 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated two ways: increasing technical efficiency of rice production and reducing post-harvest losses, and found that the potential exists for substantial increases in rice production while continuing to use current technologies and inputs.
Abstract: Rice accounts for nearly 70 % of calories consumed in Bangladesh. Therefore, any effort to improve food security in the country must find ways to increase availability of rice. This paper investigates two of these ways: increasing technical efficiency of rice production and reducing post-harvest losses. Technical efficiency was measured from Cobb-Douglas and translog production functions for the rice production seasons Aus (spring), Aman (summer) and Boro (winter). Efficiency estimates ranged from 73 to 83 %, suggesting that the potential exists for substantial increases in rice production while continuing to use current technologies and inputs. Variables influencing technical efficiency were farm size, level of famers’ education, farmers’ experience in production, microcredit, training and extension. Post-harvest losses between farmer and retailer were estimated at 10–12 %, suggesting potentially an additional source of rice without changes in production. Reduction of postharvest losses were significantly related to the availability of extension services.
63 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present the results of an exploratory study into how different forms of social capital embedded within community-based social networks may affect innovation in small-holder farming systems to better support food security in the Caribbean.
Abstract: This paper presents the results of an exploratory study into how different forms of social capital embedded within community-based social networks may affect innovation in smallholder farming systems to better support food security in the Caribbean. Focusing on two rural communities in the small island developing nation of Saint Lucia, our results indicate the strong presence of interpersonal agricultural knowledge networks operating to: 1) facilitate farmer-to-farmer knowledge exchange; 2) increase farmer access to information; and 3) connect farmers to sources of support. In both communities, ‘peer farmers’ were reported as being the primary source of new agricultural knowledge for farmers, with government ‘extension officers’ the secondary source. Comparative social network analysis reveals how different forms of social capital within the two agricultural knowledge networks can affect self-reported farmer innovation in different contexts. Based on these findings we identify a number of opportunities for policy initiatives to better support, coordinate and enhance innovation opportunities among smallholder farmers in the Caribbean with a view to building their adaptive capacity in the face of environmental change. The findings provide important evidence and insights relevant to the governance of domestic agricultural systems and regional food security programming in the Caribbean.
62 citations
TL;DR: The dynamics of Huanglongbing of citrus and begomoviruses of tomato are illustrated using two examples, and the management of such epidemics needs to address both the primary and secondary inoculum.
Abstract: In some epidemics that have devastating consequences, the primary inoculum plays an important role in both epidemic onset and intensification. This article documents the dynamics of such epidemics, and illustrates their importance using two examples: Huanglongbing of citrus and begomoviruses of tomato. The latter disease is a major constraint to tomato production in Brazil, while the former has become a threat to global citrus production and farmers’ livelihoods. In spite of their importance little is known of the characteristics of these diseases and their management. This is because classical botanical epidemiology considers two types of diseases: polycyclic diseases, where the inoculum that causes infections is produced during the epidemic in or on individual plants that had been previously infected in the course of that epidemic; or monocyclic diseases, where inoculum that causes infection is not produced in or on individual plants that had been infected in the course of the epidemic, but in the soil, on secondary hosts, or in infected crop plants of the same host in other fields. Diseases of the first type typically present a logistic disease progress curve and management is based on reducing the rate of infection, whereas diseases of the second type present a monomolecular disease progress curve and management is based on reducing the initial inoculum. This article deals with plant diseases that depart in their structure and behaviour from these two archetypes, because they borrow elements from both. We address polycyclic diseases in which the primary inoculum has a continuous and dynamic role, and in which the secondary inoculum contributes to epidemic build-up, i.e., polycyclic diseases with continuous primary spread. This epidemiological structure generates less clear-cut disease progress curves, but usually follows a monomolecular dynamic. Our focus on this type of disease is multifold because (1) this more complex, combined, pattern is actually quite common, often leading to grave plant diseases epidemics, with impacts at the farm, community, and country scales, and (2) such epidemics are among the most difficult to manage. Our analysis leads us to assess past errors and current courses of action. It allows us to recognize, in addition to the conventional tools for management with local effects, the critical importance of collective action. Collective management action – at the farm, community, or national scales – is congruent with the characteristics of many epidemics, because they also entail properties at successive and nested scales. The management of such epidemics needs to address both the primary and secondary inoculum. More importantly, these actions have to be performed in an area-wide, regional basis in order to be effective.
61 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors focus on the current status of postharvest handling of tomatoes in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and present possible interventions and opportunities for both large and small-scale producers.
Abstract: The mitigation of postharvest losses in the Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) tomato industry has the potential to improve profit margins, livelihoods and food security. This review focuses on the current status of postharvest handling of tomatoes in SSA. Recent peer-reviewed, industry, government and non-governmental organisations’ documents were consulted. Descriptive and quantitative approaches were used to present the information from the literature. Postharvest losses in the fresh tomato supply chain in SSA occur predominantly at the pre-consumer level, in contrast to similar supply chains in developed countries. Overall, recent estimations of losses in fresh market tomatoes were similar across SSA; 9.5 % in East Africa, 9.8 % in Central and Southern Africa, and 10.04 % in West Africa. Examples of individual countries showed estimated losses of 10.1 % in Kenya, 10.2 % in South Africa and 13.4 % in Nigeria representing multi-million dollar losses from these supply chains. Inadequate monitoring and quantifying of losses was noted in SSA. This document identifies postharvest challenges and presents possible interventions and opportunities for both large and small-scale producers. Overall, the implementation of any solutions in the SSA tomato supply chains will have to account for the specific contexts of each chain and level of production.
53 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors assess farmers' incentives and conditioning factors that hinder or promote adaptation strategies and evaluate their impact on crop productivity by using data from nationally representative sample households in Malawi.
Abstract: This paper assesses farmers’ incentives and conditioning factors that hinder or promote adaptation strategies and evaluates their impact on crop productivity by using data from nationally representative sample households in Malawi. We employed multivariate probit (MVP) and multinomial treatment effect (MTE) techniques to model adoption decisions and their yield impact. Exposure to delayed onset of rainfall and greater climate variability was positively associated with the choice of risk-reducing agricultural practices such as tree planting, legume intercropping, and soil and water conservation (SWC) but reduced the use of inputs (such as inorganic fertilizer) whose risk reduction benefits are uncertain. Concerning household adaptive capacity, wealthier households were more likely to adopt both modern and sustainable land management (SLM) inputs and were more likely to adopt SLM inputs on plots that were under greater security of tenure. In terms of system-level adaptive capacity, rural institutions, social capital and supply-side constraints were key in governing selection decisions for all practices considered, but particularly for tree planting and both organic and inorganic fertilizer applications. A combination of practices gave rise to higher yields suggesting that this might be a course of action that would sustain growth of yield in Malawi in the future.
TL;DR: Generally, the greatest scepticism towards GMOs and GM foods was expressed by farmers, medical workers and school teachers while the greatest enthusiasm was shown by students of medical and life sciences, and researchers/academicians.
Abstract: Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are a subject of on-going scientific, political and social discussions in Member States of the European Union (EU) concerning their use, benefits, risks, safety and limitations. EU societies have every right to substantive information and education in biotechnology, yet they appear to be misinformed by contradictory views and sensationalism. The present study investigated the level of knowledge and the attitude of citizens of Poland (n = 1021) towards the various uses of GMOs. As found, the use of GMOs in medicine and pharmacy received slight approval from the surveyed group, and was generally perceived as the greatest benefit of GMOs. In contrast, most respondents were against the production and distribution of GM food products on the Polish market or at least favoured the labelling of any product that contains a GM component. The majority of individuals who were willing to accept GM foods also demanded their labelling. The studied group revealed various concerns related to the safety of GM foods, particularly their potential effect on health and the environment. Generally, the greatest scepticism towards GMOs and GM foods was expressed by farmers, medical workers and school teachers while the greatest enthusiasm was shown by students of medical and life sciences, and researchers/academicians. Importantly, most of those taking part in the survey admitted that their knowledge of GMOs was insufficient, expressed a willingness to improve it, and expected school teachers, academicians and researchers to be actively involved in this process. In conclusion, the present study underlines the urgent need to implement evidence-based educational programmes so as to raise the public understanding of the current possibilities and limitations of GMO-based technology in Poland.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the methods of adaptation to climate change used by smallholder farmers and their impacts on household food security using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS).
Abstract: It is anticipated that smallholder subsistence farmers will face severe negative impacts from climate change, with household food security being seriously affected. This paper examines the methods of adaptation to climate change used by smallholder farmers and their impacts on household food security. The necessity to adapt to climate change is caused by a combination of sensitivity and exposure and the success in doing so depends on adaptive capacity. Household food security was determined using the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS). Of the surveyed households, 95 % were aware that climate is changing and expected severe impacts on their crop production systems. Households undertake crop and soil management practices in order to respond to the changing climate. About 83 % of households anticipated that they would alter their livelihoods systems in response to climate change, with 59 % of households indicating that government grants would play an important role in this. Of those assessed, 97 % were severely food insecure and the remaining 3 % were moderately food insecure. Householders were worried about the negative impacts of climate change which included droughts, floods and soil erosion. Householders who were vulnerable to climate change recorded high levels of food insecurity. Decline in prices of farm products, increases in costs of farm inputs and anxiety over occurrence of livestock diseases exacerbated household food insecurity. Information will play a critical role in mitigating the impacts of climate change on household food security but farmers should also be assisted with appropriate input packages, such as seeds and fertilizers that can help them adapt effectively.
TL;DR: In this article, the impact of energy access on food security at the household level has not been explored in detail; consequently, the two sectoral policies remain unaligned; therefore, more rigorous studies on this topic are needed which could provide evidence for policy action.
Abstract: Three quarters of the population in Sub Saharan Africa lacks access to modern energy, and relies instead on biomass fuels for cooking and heating. The environment and health implications of the use of biomass fuel has been widely documented in the literature, and has raised the topic of energy access in various policy and development arenas. Still, the impact of energy access on food security at the household level has not been explored in detail; consequently the two sectoral policies remain unaligned. Our aims for this review were to document how lack of access to energy can impact on food security through influence on dietary choices and cooking practices; and how reallocation of household resources from food to energy procurement causes a switch to biomass energy forms of lower grade. We searched the literature for published peer-reviewed articles available through major online publication databases, initially identifying 132 articles but finally reviewing a set of 19 that met our criteria. While most studies suggested that fuelwood scarcity can affect food security through three hypothesised pathways, very few of them provided empirical data to support this argument. Overall, the review found coping measures for woodfuel scarcity to be highly contextual and influenced by geography, household economy and labour availability. Due to the limited number of studies with detailed data, it was not possible to perform a comparative analysis that could support or refute a hypothesis that lack of access to energy can impact on food security. More rigorous studies on this topic are needed which could provide evidence for policy action.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used qualitative interviews to understand the criteria by which farmers evaluate cropping systems, and data from crop trials to assess common bean ((Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and maize (Zea mays L.)) sole crops and inter crops against those criteria.
Abstract: In Rwanda, farmers’ traditional farming systems based on inter cropping and varietal mixtures are designed to meet a variety of livelihood objectives and withstand risks associated with fluctuation in market and agro-climatic conditions. However, these mixed systems have been disappearing since 2008 when government mandated intensification strategies. In this paper we use a mixed methods approach to evaluate inter cropping and sole cropping systems against farmers’ criteria for success: yield, market value, contribution to nutritional quality, and land-use efficiency. We used qualitative interviews to understand the criteria by which farmers evaluate cropping systems, and data from crop trials to assess common bean ((Phaseolus vulgaris L.) and maize (Zea mays L.)) sole crops and inter crops against those criteria. We found that an improved inter cropping system tends to outperform the government-mandated system of alternating sole-cropped bean and maize season-by-season, on all four of the criteria tested. Although Rwanda’s agricultural intensification strategy aims to improve rural livelihoods through agricultural modernization, it fails to acknowledge the multiple and currently non-replaceable benefits that diverse cropping systems provide, particularly food security and risk management. Agricultural policies need to be based on a better understanding of smallholders’ objectives and constraints. Efforts to improve farming systems require innovative and inclusive approaches that enable adaptation to the socio-ecological context.
TL;DR: In this paper, an economic approach is adopted to evaluate the degree to which food insecurity concerns produce an independent effect on armed conflict using comprehensive geographic data, and the results show that food insecurity measures are robustly associated with the occurrence of contemporary armed conflict.
Abstract: Food security has attracted widespread attention in recent years. Yet, scientists and practitioners have predominately understood food security in terms of dietary energy availability and nutrient deficiencies, rather than in terms of food security’s consequential implications for social and political violence. The present study offers the first global evaluation of the effects of food insecurity on local conflict dynamics. An economic approach is adopted to empirically evaluate the degree to which food insecurity concerns produce an independent effect on armed conflict using comprehensive geographic data. Specifically, two agricultural output measures – a geographic area’s extent of cropland and a given agricultural location’s amount of cropland per capita – are used to respectively measure the access to and availability of (i.e., the demand and supply of) food in a given region. Findings show that food insecurity measures are robustly associated with the occurrence of contemporary armed conflict.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a resilience framework for agriculture and resource management at multiple scales and social-ecological interfaces, drawing on academic literature, field observation, insight from development researchers and practitioners, and agency reports.
Abstract: To address the twin pressures of land degradation and climate change in communities of agriculturalists, agro-pastoralists and pastoralists who are vulnerable to acute and chronic food and livelihood insecurity, we review emerging resilience approaches to agricultural development and present a resilience framework for agriculture and resource management at multiple scales and social-ecological interfaces. The paper draws on academic literature, field observation, insight from development researchers and practitioners, and agency reports to build a framework for guiding investment in initiatives that stand to sustainably improve the livelihoods of rural populations whose livelihood security is at risk from a combination of poverty and drought, deforestation, over-grazing, forced migration or other shocks. We suggest how working at landscape scale to link interventions in agroecological, livelihood, ecological and institutional dimensions of resilience, and integrating the four dimensions through stakeholder-engaged, adaptive collaborative management enables synergies to be captured and trade-offs reduced. We use the insights from development practitioners, political ecologists, and rural sociologists to highlight the need to historically, politically, and culturally situate this framework, and to emphasize the importance of participatory methods in successful resilient landscape management projects.
TL;DR: This review examines the opportunities and challenges posed by using new technology within a plant biosecurity context, but in contrast to previous reviews, here there is a focus on practical challenges associated with deployment and routine use, rather than specific technical issues.
Abstract: Pest and pathogens pose a major threat to food security and the natural environment, and these threats are moving around the globe. Trade, travel and transport have major roles to play in this and thus to improve plant biosecurity, we need enhanced phytosanitary inspection systems. In order to achieve this, there is a role for the more effective use of diagnostic technology, such as field-based testing or the use of next generation sequencing technology. In this review we examine the opportunities and challenges posed by using new technology within a plant biosecurity context, but in contrast to previous reviews, here we focus on practical challenges associated with deployment and routine use, rather than specific technical issues. These key challenges include the need to accelerate the development and deployment of new technologies into the field, the accelerated discovery of new pathogens and the need for new risk assessment approaches, and improvements to our understanding of how best to deploy and use new diagnostic tools for maximum impact. Throughout we focus on how interdisciplinary approaches are important to help us improve our understanding and achieve our goals.
TL;DR: In the context of food security and sustainability, the authors in this article argue that food animals have an important role in food security, although it is not the place of this review to make those arguments.
Abstract: Many of the readers of Food Security may find themselves being critical of animal science in the context of food security and sustainability, rather than trying to see what animal science research can contribute to this area of study. After all, food animals are implicated in rain forest destruction, water pollution and greenhouse gas emissions (methane emissions in particular have been emphasised). Also, it is argued that land used to produce feed for animals could be used to produce food for humans instead, and that excessive consumption of animal products is harmful to human health. The emphasis in sustainability debates has therefore tended to be on advocating reduced meat consumption (and more rarely, reduced consumption of dairy products). Why then should readers of Food Security be interested in this book? Many will argue that food animals have an important role in food security, although it is not the place of this review to make those arguments. Suffice to mention that key arguments advanced include the ability of animals to convert grass and waste products not usable by humans into valuable sources of protein, the role of grazing animals in maintaining biodiversity, the role of manure in maintaining soils and the ability of food animals to sustain rural livelihoods in marginal areas. Whatever the case, the premise of this book is the often quoted statistic that global demand for animal products is predicted to almost double by 2050. This book is one of a series of expert reports produced by the USNational Research Council, and their website indicates that one of its intentions is informing government policies. It is a result of the deliberations of an ad hoc Committee of ten specialists, including animal scientists but also specialists in nutrition, human-environment relationships, human and veterinary medicine and aquaculture, plus representation from industry. This group was tasked with evaluating animal agriculture research needs in order to meet future global demand for animal products, in the face of climate change and limited natural resources. Examining these underlying assumptions was explicitly excluded from the remit. The book covers a huge range of subjects, including breeding and genetics, nutrition, and animal health and welfare, as well as emphasising socioeconomic considerations and integration of research areas. It is refreshing to see aquaculture included, as this is often left out of such discussions. A particularly interesting aspect of the coverage is the Committee’s reflections on the need for trained human capital and infrastructure. Some of the recommendations relate to production orientation, for example understanding animal nutrient metabolism. Others are more systems oriented, for example identifying alternative animal feed ingredients from human food waste, biofuels and industrial production processes. Animal welfare research and identifying alternatives to the use of antibiotics are also mentioned. Research related to climate change includes both adaptation to the effects of climate change and a better understanding of greenhouse gas emissions from animal agriculture. The book doesn’t shy away from considering some of the more controversial aspects of animal agriculture, such as genetic modification, the use of growth-promoting feed additives such as beta-agonists, and irradiating meat to kill potential pathogens. But in a book of this kind, none of these issues can be covered in depth. As well as identifying the research needs of the United States, global needs are also given a chapter, with an emphasis * Ann Bruce ann.bruce@ed.ac.uk
TL;DR: In many parts of the world, rural livelihoods are characterized by a high degree of vulnerability to climate change, market volatility, and political unrest, and the need to better supplement the development of reliable metrics for assessing resilience with richer and more context-specific narratives is also highlighted as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In many parts of the world, rural livelihoods are characterized by a high degree of vulnerability to climate change, market volatility, and political unrest. Increasingly, the concept of resilience is being used to inform development initiatives aimed at building the capacity of rural households and communities to cope, adapt, and transform in the face of diverse shocks and stressors. There remain, however, significant challenges to mainstreaming resilience thinking into food and nutrition security policy and programming, primarily because the concept is best understood as being embedded within dynamic and highly contextual processes that can be interpreted differently by various parties. This Special Section of Food Security presents international case studies exploring the vulnerability of rural livelihoods and the initiatives proposed to build resilience, providing valuable insights into the practical challenges to assessing resilience in different contexts. Through different applications of the resilience concept, these case studies highlight the key roles played by broader social, institutional, and governance contexts in affecting food and nutrition security. The need to better supplement the development of reliable metrics for assessing resilience with richer and more context-specific narratives is also highlighted.
TL;DR: Data is presented showing that addressing health and management constraints within the existing village poultry system resulted in significantly improved productivity and profitability, and has the potential to improve not only producers’ economic resilience, but also resilience tied to the food security and physical health of the entire community.
Abstract: In Zambia's Luangwa Valley, highly variable rainfall and lack of education, agricultural inputs, and market access constrain agricultural productivity, trapping smallholder farmers in chronic poverty and food insecurity. Human and animal disease (e.g. HIV and Newcastle Disease, respectively), further threaten the resilience of poor families. To cope with various shocks and stressors, many farmers employ short-term coping strategies that threaten ecosystem resilience. Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) utilizes an agribusiness model to alleviate poverty and food insecurity through conservation farming, market development and value-added food production. COMACO promotes household, agricultural and ecological resilience along two strategic lines: improving recovery from shocks (mitigation) and reducing the risk of shock occurrence. Here we focus on two of COMACO's poultry interventions and present data showing that addressing health and management constraints within the existing village poultry system resulted in significantly improved productivity and profitability. However, once reliable productivity was achieved, farmers preferred to sell chickens rather than eat either the birds or their eggs. Sales of live birds were largely outside the community to avoid price suppression; in contrast, the sale of eggs from community-operated, semi-intensive egg production facilities was invariably within the communities. These facilities resulted in significant increases in both producer income and community consumption of eggs. This intervention therefore has the potential to improve not only producers' economic resilience, but also resilience tied to the food security and physical health of the entire community.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify the challenge posed by rapid urbanisation for food security in Tanzania to 2030, the Sustainable Development Goals horizon, and identify the interlinkages between the food supply systems and the rural food production potential.
Abstract: Urbanisation in Tanzania is proceeding apace. This article seeks to identify the challenge posed by rapid urbanisation for food security in Tanzania to 2030, the Sustainable Development Goals horizon. It is hypothesized that urban food security largely depends on the food supply systems and the rural food production potential. The analysis of these interlinkages is based on secondary macro data and own primary micro data. Tanzania has done well to achieve broad self-sufficiency in basic foodstuffs to date, but rapid urbanisation will pose a severe future challenge as regards food security, particularly for the disadvantaged poorer people of the towns and cities in terms of food affordability, stability and food safety. Whether Tanzania can avoid future deterioration in urban food security will depend on how responsive and resilient the urban food supply systems prove to be in the face of continuing urban growth, changing consumption patterns, weak rural–urban food supply linkages and production constraints in the smallholder farming sector.
TL;DR: In this paper, a mixed-methods research study employed questionnaire surveys among on-reserve commercial and subsistence fishing households, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and follow-up interviews for verification.
Abstract: Indigenous peoples in northern Canada (at least the off-reserve part of the population) experience food insecurity at a rate which is more than double that of all Canadian households. The Cree community of Norway House in northern Manitoba, which harvests and consumes a great deal of fish, may be an exception and may offer some lessons. The objective of the paper is to address food security through the lens of local fisheries, both commercial and subsistence, of a northern indigenous community, and to develop an integrated approach to analyze food security. The approach uses Sen’s entitlement theory and the concept of food sovereignty. This mixed-methods research study employed questionnaire surveys among on–reserve commercial and subsistence fishing households, semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions and follow-up interviews for verification. During commercial fishing seasons (spring/summer and fall), fishers and their helpers share their fish harvest extensively through their families and communal networks, reaching almost half of the total population of the community. Such extensive sharing and the continuing community-based fishery have contributed to Norway House having more than 90 % food secure households, comparable to the Canadian average. Norway House may provide an example for other northern indigenous communities regarding food insecurity through use of fish and other traditional foods. The proposed integrated approach may be useful for analyzing food security in general.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyzed three scenarios for global phosphorus extraction and recycling under discounted utilitarianism and showed that for a benchmark scenario without recycling, food security will inevitably be violated in the long run.
Abstract: Food security for all is a global political goal and an outstanding moral concern. The common response to this concern is agricultural intensification, which includes among other things increasing inputs of fertilisers. The paper addresses the fact that phosphorus (P) is essential for agricultural production but large and increasing amounts of P fertilisers stem from depletable mines. This raises sustainability concerns and the possibility of long-term food insecurity. The paper analyses three scenarios for global phosphorus extraction and recycling under discounted utilitarianism. First, for a benchmark scenario without recycling, food security will inevitably be violated in the long run. Second, if we introduce P recycling, food security can be maintained but food production falls over time and approaches a minimum level just sufficient to feed the global population. Third, a sustainable (i.e. non-declining) path of food production is feasible. Compared to just maintaining a minimum level of food production the sustainable path requires greater recycling efforts. Recycling efforts are increasing over time but the total discounted costs are finite and, hence, sustainable food production seems feasible even if it depends on depletable phosphate mines.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conducted on-farm trials to assess the effectiveness of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS) bags for storage of maize in small-scale farmers' stores in rural villages in eastern Kenya.
Abstract: Participatory on-farm trials were conducted to assess effectiveness of Purdue Improved Crop Storage (PICS™) bags for storage of maize in small-scale farmers’ stores in rural villages in eastern Kenya. A PICS bag is a three-layered hermetic bag-system that forms a barrier against the influx of oxygen and the escape of carbon dioxide. Jute, woven polypropylene or PICS bags were filled with shelled maize grain, purchased from the participating farmers, and the three sets of bags kept in the farmers’ own stores for 35 weeks. Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the PICS bags were monitored, as well as the temperature and relative humidity in all the bags. Grain moisture, live insect population, grain damage and weight loss were examined at intervals of seven weeks. Oxygen and carbon dioxide composition demonstrated that PICS bags are capable of sustaining good air-barrier properties under farmer storage conditions. Moreover, moisture content of maize stored in PICS bags did not change throughout the storage period whereas the moisture content of maize stored in polypropylene and jute bags decreased significantly in the final 14 weeks. Maize stored in PICS bags remained free from insect infestation and the weight loss due to insect damage was below 1 %. On the contrary, polypropylene and jute bags permitted profuse build-up of insect populations. At 35 weeks, grain damage reached 77.6 % and 82.3 % corresponding to 41.2 % and 48.5 % weight loss in the polypropylene and jute bags respectively. These findings demonstrate that PICS bags are effective in controlling losses caused by storage pests under farmer storage conditions.
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study was conducted in the flood-prone indigenous community of Panaillo, located in the Ucayali region of the Peruvian Amazon, examining how the 2010-2011 flooding affected the food system at community and institutional levels.
Abstract: Projections of climate change indicate an increase in the frequency and intensity of climatic hazards such as flooding and droughts, increasing the importance of understanding community vulnerability to extreme hydrological events. This research was conducted in the flood-prone indigenous community of Panaillo, located in the Ucayali region of the Peruvian Amazon, examining how the 2010–2011 flooding affected the food system at community and institutional levels. Drawing upon in-depth fieldwork using participatory research methods over multiple seasons—including semi-structured interviews (n = 74), focus groups, and seasonal food security calendar and historical timeline exercises—the flooding was documented to have created several opportunities for increased fishing and agricultural production in Panaillo. However, households lacked the resources to fully exploit the opportunities presented by the extreme conditions and increasingly turned to migration as a coping mechanism. International aid organizations were drawn to Ucayali in response to the flooding, and introduced additional programming and provided capacity-building sessions for local institutions. However, local institutions remain weak and continue to generally disregard the increasing magnitude and frequency of extremes, documented in the region over the last decade. Moreover, the long-term implications of community-level and institutional responses to the extreme flooding could increase food system vulnerability in the future. This case study highlights the importance of considering both slow and fast drivers of food system vulnerability in the aftermath of an extreme hydrological event.
TL;DR: In this paper, the food security situations of two categories of subsistence farm households, vegetable-and cereal-based farming systems, in the Makwanpur district of Nepal in the context of climate change were analyzed.
Abstract: The potential impacts of climate change on the food security of subsistence farmers is a serious concern. This article explores the food security situations of two categories of subsistence farm households, vegetable- and cereal-based farming systems, in the Makwanpur district of Nepal in the context of climate change. Local climate data for the past 30 years were analyzed. Interviews with local farmers and key informants, and focus group discussions were carried out to collect the primary data. Empirical data showed that changes in climate variables for the study period were in line with farmers’ perceptions and that farming communities were negatively impacted. Perceived impacts were erratic rainfall, increased frequency of floods and droughts, soil degradation and insect pests, weeds and diseases. Farmers have modified traditional cropping patterns and calendar, changed crop varieties and increased fertilizer and pesticide applications in order to maintain crop yields. They have also sought off-farm employment. However, agricultural productivity in the area is declining and only one third of all households in the area were food secure. Household food insecurity was at mild to moderate levels, but vegetable-based households were more secure than cereal-based ones. At the household level, locally successful adaptive measures, such as rainwater harvesting, mulching, planting date adjustments, off-farm opportunities, including infrastructure and extension support, could increase production and contribute to reversing the impact of increased risk attributed to climate change.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors analyzed the impact of agricultural technologies on the four pillars of food security for maize farmers in Tanzania and found that the adoption of both technologies have positive and significant impacts on food availability while for access, utilization and stability.
Abstract: The paper analyses the impact of agricultural technologies on the four pillars of food security for maize farmers in Tanzania. Relying on both matching techniques and endogenous switching regression models, we used a nationally representative dataset collected over the period 2010/2011 to estimate the causal effects of using improved seeds and inorganic fertilizers on food availability, access, utilization, and stability. Our results show that the adoption of both technologies have positive and significant impacts on food availability while for access, utilization and stability we observe heterogeneity between improved seeds and inorganic fertilizers as well as across the food security pillars. The study supports the idea that the relationship between agricultural technologies and food security is a complex phenomenon, which cannot be limited to the use of welfare indexes as proxy for food security.
TL;DR: Regression analysis showed that rodents contributed significantly to total storage losses, and identified rodent trapping as the main storage practice that significantly lowered the losses, together with insecticides, rodent traps were found to significantly decrease total losses.
Abstract: Rodents are one of the major postharvest pests that affect food security by impacting on both food availability and safety. However, knowledge of the impact of rodents in on-farm maize storage systems in Kenya is limited. A survey was conducted in 2014 to assess magnitudes of postharvest losses in on-farm maize storage systems in Kenya, and the contribution of rodents to the losses. A total of 630 farmers spread across six maize growing agro-ecological zones (AEZs) were interviewed. Insects, rodents and moulds were the main storage problems reported by farmers. Storage losses were highest in the moist transitional and moist mid-altitude zones, and lowest in the dry-transitional zone. Overall, rodents represented the second most important cause of storage losses after insects, and were ranked as the main storage problem in the lowland tropical zone, while insects were the main storage problem in the other AEZs. Where maize was stored on cobs, total farmer perceived (farmer estimation) storage weight losses were 11.1 ± 0.7 %, with rodents causing up to 43 % of these losses. Contrastingly, where maize was stored as shelled grain, the losses were 15.5 ± 0.6 % with rodents accounting for up to 30 %. Regression analysis showed that rodents contributed significantly to total storage losses (p < 0.0001), and identified rodent trapping as the main storage practice that significantly (p = 0.001) lowered the losses. Together with insecticides, rodent traps were found to significantly decrease total losses. Improved awareness and application of these practices could mitigate losses in on farm-stored maize.
TL;DR: Refining the BXW management recommendations is suggested, in particular limiting the cutting of BxW-affected plants to dry periods and sterilizing farm tools in fire, to impose some recommended management practices.
Abstract: Banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW), caused by the recently introduced pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm), is a limiting factor for banana production in Kagera, Tanzania. A region-wide eradication campaign was initiated in 2013. The objectives were to gain insight into the spatial and seasonal occurrences of BXW and into field management practices. In 2015, 135 smallholder farmers were interviewed about BXW and management practices, and their farms were assessed for incidence of the disease. BXW incidence per ward in 2014, obtained from extension offices, and space-time cluster analysis was performed with SaTScan. BXW clusters were detected during rainy but not during dry seasons. These results agreed with the information provided by farmers that the highest incidence of BXW occurred during rainy seasons. Farmers recalled that BXW incidence increased exponentially between 2011 and 2013 but decreased steeply after 2013, coincident with the start of the BXW eradication campaign. However, pathogen transmission continued due to inconsistent sterilization of field tools and exposure of Xcm to rain. Fields of poor farmers are at greatest risk because they borrow tools and are unable to impose some recommended management practices. After the appearance of BXW in individual farms, the number of banana bunches consumed per family per month decreased significantly from 13.1 to 6.4 with a corresponding increase in areas planted to cassava and maize. Based on these findings, we suggest refining the BXW management recommendations, in particular limiting the cutting of BXW-affected plants to dry periods and sterilizing farm tools in fire.