Showing papers in "Journal of Comparative Psychology in 2016"
TL;DR: Compared facial playful communication in 2 macaque species at opposite ends of the continuum, it is predicted that tolerance has favored larger facial display repertoires and playful cooperative tendency and it is likely that RFM improves communicative exchanges between the playmates and, at the same time, promotes behavioral coordination and cooperation in the sequence of actions.
Abstract: Social play and tolerance are positively correlated and playful signals are more freely expressed in egalitarian than in despotic species. Macaque species are organized along a continuum from intolerant to tolerant social systems and, for this reason, they are good models to test some hypotheses about the possible linkage between communication and tolerance. We compared facial playful communication in 2 macaque species at opposite ends of the continuum: despotic Japanese macaques, Macaca fuscata, and tolerant Tonkean macaques, Macaca tonkeana. We predicted that tolerance has favored larger facial display repertoires and playful cooperative tendency. Moreover, we evaluated if tolerance could also reflect in the selection for emotional sharing expressed through rapid facial mimicry (RFM). RFM is an automatic, unconscious, and fast (<1 s) motor mirror response which favors emotional communication between subjects. Although M. fuscata and M. tonkeana performed play faces (PF) at comparable levels, only Tonkean macaques showed the phenomenon of RFM. The playful sessions characterized by RFM lasted longer than those characterized by the presence of playful signals perceived by a playmate but not followed by mimicry. Interestingly, the duration of playful sessions in Tonkean macaques overcame that of the sessions in Japanese macaques. It is likely that RFM improves communicative exchanges between the playmates and, at the same time, promotes behavioral coordination and cooperation in the sequence of actions. The tolerant nature of Tonkean macaques, also expressed in play, can foster RFM which, at the same time, positively enhances the propensity to cooperate in a sort of positive feedback. (PsycINFO Database Record
55 citations
TL;DR: It is shown that snake-naive Japanese monkeys detect a single snake picture among 8 nonthreat animal pictures (koala) more quickly than vice versa; however, no such difference in detection was observed between spiders and pleasant animals.
Abstract: Humans quickly detect the presence of evolutionary threats through visual perception. Many theorists have considered humans to be predisposed to respond to both snakes and spiders as evolutionarily fear-relevant stimuli. Evidence supports that human adults, children, and snake-naive monkeys all detect pictures of snakes among pictures of flowers more quickly than vice versa, but recent neurophysiological and behavioral studies suggest that spiders may, in fact, be processed similarly to nonthreat animals. The evidence of quick detection and rapid fear learning by primates is limited to snakes, and no such evidence exists for spiders, suggesting qualitative differences between fear of snakes and fear of spiders. Here, we show that snake-naive Japanese monkeys detect a single snake picture among 8 nonthreat animal pictures (koala) more quickly than vice versa; however, no such difference in detection was observed between spiders and pleasant animals. These robust differences between snakes and spiders are the most convincing evidence that the primate visual system is predisposed to pay attention to snakes but not spiders. These findings suggest that attentional bias toward snakes has an evolutionary basis but that bias toward spiders is more due to top-down, conceptually driven effects of emotion on attention capture. (PsycINFO Database Record
48 citations
TL;DR: 2 tactics may concur in coping with the asymmetry and unpredictability of play sessions in dogs: whenever the asymmetric increases dogs shorten the duration of their sessions thus limiting the risk of possible escalation and making use of a good communicative system based on the reciprocal exchange of playful signals.
Abstract: Due to their playful propensity, dogs are a good model to test some hypotheses about play dynamics (length, asymmetry, features of players) and communication (play bow [PBOW]; relaxed open-mouth [ROM] display). We video-recorded 203 play sessions between dogs in an off-leash dog park in Palermo, Italy. Contrary to the expectation, play asymmetry (particularly high in this species) did not differ between stranger and familiar dogs, thus suggesting the limited role of play in forming dominance relationships. Asymmetry negatively affected the duration of the session, whereas the increasing number of players was positively linked to the duration of playful interactions. The number of PBOWs exchanged by players may exert a certain influence on the session length as well. PBOWs were performed independently from the kind of play (locomotor vs. contact) the dogs were engaging in. Conversely, ROMs were preferentially emitted during contact play when "face-to-face" interactions were more likely. Body closeness is also required in case opening the mouth has not a signal function but only preludes a bite. However, in the 82% of cases play bites did not follow a ROM, thus suggesting that dogs place ROMs in the appropriate context to optimize signal detectability. In conclusion, 2 tactics may concur in coping with the asymmetry and unpredictability of play sessions in dogs. First, whenever the asymmetry increases dogs shorten the duration of their sessions thus limiting the risk of possible escalation. Second, dogs make use of a good communicative system based on the reciprocal exchange of playful signals. (PsycINFO Database Record
38 citations
TL;DR: The authors show that increasing redundant copying increases the likelihood of accurately transmitting a behavior more than either augmenting the number of copying occasions across time or boosting the general accuracy of social learning.
Abstract: Redundant copying has been proposed as a manner to achieve the high-fidelity necessary to pass on and preserve complex traits in human cultural transmission. There are at least 2 ways to define redundant copying. One refers to the possibility of copying repeatedly the same trait over time, and another to the ability to exploit multiple layers of information pointing to the same trait during a single copying event. Using an individual-based model, we explore how redundant copying (defined as in the latter way) helps to achieve successful transmission. The authors show that increasing redundant copying increases the likelihood of accurately transmitting a behavior more than either augmenting the number of copying occasions across time or boosting the general accuracy of social learning. They also investigate how different cost functions, deriving, for example, from the need to invest more energy in cognitive processing, impact the evolution of redundant copying. The authors show that populations converge either to high-fitness/high-costs states (with high redundant copying and complex culturally transmitted behaviors; resembling human culture) or to low-fitness/low-costs states (with low redundant copying and simple transmitted behaviors; resembling social learning forms typical of nonhuman animals). This outcome may help to explain why cumulative culture is rare in the animal kingdom.
27 citations
TL;DR: A general ethogram for the actions of the flexible body as well as the skin displays of octopuses in the family Octopodidae is constructed, suggesting that, despite having flexible muscular hydrostat movement systems producing several behavioral units, simplicity may underlie the complexity of movement and appearance.
Abstract: The present paper constructs a general ethogram for the actions of the flexible body as well as the skin displays of octopuses in the family Octopodidae. The actions of 6 sets of structures (mantle-funnel, arms, sucker-stalk, skin-web, head, and mouth) combine to produce behavioral units that involve positioning of parts leading to postures such as the flamboyant, movements of parts of the animal with relation to itself including head bob and grooming, and movements of the whole animal by both jetting in the water and crawling along the substrate. Muscular actions result in 4 key changes in skin display: (a) chromatophore expansion, (b) chromatophore contraction resulting in appearance of reflective colors such as iridophores and leucophores, (c) erection of papillae on the skin, and (d) overall postures of arms and mantle controlled by actions of the octopus muscular hydrostat. They produce appearances, including excellent camouflage, moving passing cloud and iridescent blue rings, with only a few known species-specific male visual sexual displays. Commonalities across the family suggest that, despite having flexible muscular hydrostat movement systems producing several behavioral units, simplicity of production may underlie the complexity of movement and appearance. This systematic framework allows researchers to take the next step in modeling how such diversity can be a combination of just a few variables. (PsycINFO Database Record
27 citations
TL;DR: Angelfish and human adults in the absence of explicit instructions spontaneously favored a relative rule, selecting the novel numerosity, demonstrating that, beyond shared representations for numerical quantities, vertebrate species may also share a system for taking decisions about quantities.
Abstract: Numerous studies have shown that many animal species can be trained to discriminate between stimuli differing in numerosity. However, in the absence of generalization tests with untrained numerosities, what decision criterion was used by subjects remains unclear: the subjects may succeed by selecting a specific number of items (a criterion over absolute numerosities), or by applying a more general relative numerosity rule, for example, selecting the larger/smaller quantity of items. The latter case may require more powerful representations, supporting judgments of order ("more/less") beyond simple "same/different" judgments, but a relative numerosity rule may also be more adaptive. In previous research, we showed that guppies (Poecilia reticulata) spontaneously prefer relative numerosity rules. To date it is unclear whether this preference is shared by other fish and, more broadly, other species. Here we compared the performance of angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) with that of human adults (Homo sapiens) in a task in which subjects were initially trained to select arrays containing 10 dots (either in 5 vs. 10 or 10 vs. 20 comparisons). Subsequently they were tested with the previously trained numerosity and a novel numerosity (respectively, 20 or 5). In the absence of explicit instructions, both species spontaneously favored a relative rule, selecting the novel numerosity. These similarities demonstrate that, beyond shared representations for numerical quantities, vertebrate species may also share a system for taking decisions about quantities. (PsycINFO Database Record
25 citations
TL;DR: A task in which choice of 1 alternative A provides reinforcement and in addition, allows access to alternative B that also provides reinforcement, and the hypothesis that pigeons' preference was influenced by the frequency of reinforcements associated with A and B was tested.
Abstract: Recent research has examined a task in which choice of 1 alternative A provides reinforcement and in addition, allows access to alternative B that also provides reinforcement. However, although initial choice of B also provides reinforcement, it does not also allow access to A. Thus, optimal performance would be to always choose A. Curiously, Salwiczek et al. (2012) reported that adult wrasse (cleaner) fish mastered this task within 50 trials, whereas monkeys and apes had great difficulty with it. The authors attributed the species differences to ecological differences in the species foraging experiences. However, Pepperberg and Hartsfield (2014) found that parrots too learned this task. In Experiment 1, using the manual presentation of stimuli, we found that pigeons actually showed a reliable preference for B, the suboptimal alternative. In Experiment 2, we replicated the suboptimal preference using an automated version of the task. We hypothesized that the pigeons may have been basing their preference on the frequency of reinforcement associated with each alternative (initially, all trials ended with choice of B, whereas only half of the trials involved choice of A). In Experiment 3, we tested the hypothesis that the pigeons' preference was influenced by the frequency of reinforcements associated with A and B. Thus, when the pigeon chose A, we replaced B with C, so reinforcement occurred to B only when they chose it first. With this procedure we found that B was no longer preferred over A. Thus, the data supported our hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record
24 citations
TL;DR: A new perspective is provided on the old debate about whether evidence for higher order cognition in nonhuman animals can be reinterpreted in terms of associative learning and it is argued that higher order Cognition and Associative learning are not necessarily mutually exclusive.
Abstract: We aim to provide a new perspective on the old debate about whether evidence for higher order cognition in nonhuman animals can be reinterpreted in terms of associative learning. Our starting point is the idea that associative learning is best thought of as an effect (i.e., the impact of paired events on behavior) rather than a specific mental process (e.g., the formation of associations). This idea allows us to consider (a) propositional theories according to which associative learning is mediated by higher order mental processes akin to problem solving and (b) relational frame theory that allows one to think of seemingly simple associative learning effects as instances of a complex phenomenon known as arbitrarily applicable relational responding. Based on these 2 theories, we argue that (a) higher order cognition and associative learning are not necessarily mutually exclusive and (b) a more sophisticated conceptualization of higher order cognition is warranted. (PsycINFO Database Record
24 citations
TL;DR: A surprising amount of flexibility in great apes' communicative abilities is demonstrated while at the same time suggesting some important limitations in their social communicative skills.
Abstract: M. Bohn was supported by a scholarship of the German National Academic Foundation. J. Call was supported by the “SOMICS” ERC-Synergy grant (nr. 609819).
24 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that comparing dogs to other animal species might be more informative when done in intraspecific social contexts, because following human gaze in dogs might be influenced by special evolutionary as well as developmental adaptations to interactions with humans.
Abstract: Gaze following into distant space is defined as visual co-orientation with another individual's head direction allowing the gaze follower to gain information on its environment. Human and nonhuman animals share this basic gaze following behavior, suggested to rely on a simple reflexive mechanism and believed to be an important prerequisite for complex forms of social cognition. Pet dogs differ from other species in that they follow only communicative human gaze clearly addressed to them. However, in an earlier experiment we showed that wolves follow human gaze into distant space. Here we set out to investigate whether domestication has affected gaze following in dogs by comparing pack-living dogs and wolves raised and kept under the same conditions. In Study 1 we found that in contrast to the wolves, these dogs did not follow minimally communicative human gaze into distant space in the same test paradigm. In the observational Study 2 we found that pack-living dogs and wolves, similarly vigilant to environmental stimuli, follow the spontaneous gaze of their conspecifics similarly often. Our findings suggest that domestication did not affect the gaze following ability of dogs itself. The results raise hypotheses about which other dog skills might have been altered through domestication that may have influenced their performance in Study 1. Because following human gaze in dogs might be influenced by special evolutionary as well as developmental adaptations to interactions with humans, we suggest that comparing dogs to other animal species might be more informative when done in intraspecific social contexts. (PsycINFO Database Record
24 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that at times inferential reasoning might be the most likely candidate to account for performance differences between experimental and control conditions and a general conclusion drawn could be that a dichotomist battle of 2 conceptual camps is a scientific deadlock.
Abstract: The debate about whether or not one could/should ascribe reasoning abilities to animals has deep historical roots and seems very up-to-date in the light of the immense body of new empirical data originating from various species and research paradigms. Associative learning (AL) seems to be a ubiquitous low-level contender for any cognitive interpretation of animal behavior, mostly because of the assumed mechanistic simplicity and phylogenetic prevalence. However, the implicit assumption that AL is simple and therefore the most parsimonious mechanism to describe seemingly complex behavior can and must be questioned on various grounds. Using recent empirical findings with chimpanzees as an example, I argue that at times inferential reasoning might be the most likely candidate to account for performance differences between experimental and control conditions. Finally, a general conclusion drawn from the current debate(s) in the field of comparative psychology could be that a dichotomist battle of 2 conceptual camps-each of which is lacking a clear and homogeneous theoretical framework-is a scientific deadlock. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: Results showed that females produced a higher total number of 50 kHz USVs to intact males than castrated males, and produced similar numbers of calls to both categories of females, and spent more time in the vicinity of male than female partners, regardless of the partners' gonadal status.
Abstract: In many species of animals, male vocalizations function to attract mating partners and coordinate sexual interactions. Whereas male vocalizations have been well studied in several species, the function of female vocalizations in mating contexts is not fully understood. In Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus), both males and females produce ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) during sexual encounters with opposite sex partners. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that female vocalizations play a role in sociosexual interactions by examining how rates of 50 kHz USV production vary in relation to the sex and gonadal status of the partner, and by examining whether the proportion of frequency modulated (FM) and constant frequency calls differs between these categories of social partner. The results showed that females produced a higher total number of 50 kHz USVs to intact males than castrated males, and produced similar numbers of calls to both categories of females. Females also produced a higher proportion of FM calls to male partners than to female partners, and spent more time in the vicinity of male than female partners, regardless of the partners' gonadal status. Female USVs therefore potentially provide a measure of sexual motivation and may function to promote female mate choice in this species with multimale mating and a high risk of infanticide.
TL;DR: Findings demonstrate the reliability and robustness of predominance of right-handedness in olive baboons for bimanual coordinated behaviors.
Abstract: The reliability of handedness data in nonhuman primates and variations of sample size across studies are critical issues for exploring their potential continuity with humans concerning hemispheric specialization. In this study, we investigated the consistency of handedness for unimanual and bimanual tasks in olive baboons (Papio anubis). For both tasks, we found a consistency of hand preferences over time among subjects retested 5 years later and a consistency of population-level handedness between 2 independent populations. Altogether, when combining the 2 samples, bimanual (N = 260) but not unimanual task (N = 220) elicited right-handedness predominance. These findings demonstrate the reliability and robustness of predominance of right-handedness in olive baboons for bimanual coordinated behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: This longitudinal study investigated whether complex tool behaviors used to gain an out-of-reach reward were retained and subsequently executed more quickly by experienced than by naïve chimpanzees, providing some of the first evidence for appreciable long-term procedural memory, and improvements in the utility of complex tool manufacture in chimpanzees.
Abstract: Long-term memory can be critical to a species' survival in environments with seasonal and even longer-term cycles of resource availability. The present, longitudinal study investigated whether complex tool behaviors used to gain an out-of-reach reward, following a hiatus of about 3 years and 7 months since initial experiences with a tool use task, were retained and subsequently executed more quickly by experienced than by naive chimpanzees. Ten of the 11 retested chimpanzees displayed impressive long-term procedural memory, creating elongated tools using the same methods employed years previously, either combining 2 tools or extending a single tool. The complex tool behaviors were also transferred to a different task context, showing behavioral flexibility. This represents some of the first evidence for appreciable long-term procedural memory, and improvements in the utility of complex tool manufacture in chimpanzees. Such long-term procedural memory and behavioral flexibility have important implications for the longevity and transmission of behavioral traditions.
TL;DR: The human-like performance exhibited in the presence of the illusory pattern suggests the existence of similar perceptual mechanisms between humans and fish to elaborate the brightness of objects.
Abstract: A long-standing debate surrounds the issue of whether human and nonhuman species share similar perceptual mechanisms. One experimental strategy to compare visual perception of vertebrates consists in assessing how animals react in the presence of visual illusions. To date, this methodological approach has been widely used with mammals and birds, while few studies have been reported in distantly related species, such as fish. In the present study we investigated whether fish perceive the brightness illusion, a well-known illusion occurring when 2 objects, identical in physical features, appear to be different in brightness. Twelve guppies (Poecilia reticulata) were initially trained to discriminate which rectangle was darker or lighter between 2 otherwise identical rectangles. Three different conditions were set up: neutral condition between rectangle and background (same background used for both darker and lighter rectangle); congruent condition (darker rectangle in a darker background and lighter rectangle in a lighter background); and incongruent condition (darker rectangle in a lighter background and lighter rectangle in a darker background). After reaching the learning criterion, guppies were presented with the illusory pattern: 2 identical rectangles inserted in 2 different backgrounds. Guppies previously trained to select the darker rectangle showed a significant choice of the rectangle that appears to be darker by human observers (and vice versa). The human-like performance exhibited in the presence of the illusory pattern suggests the existence of similar perceptual mechanisms between humans and fish to elaborate the brightness of objects.
TL;DR: The overall pattern of results shows that the coordinated behavior of 2 rats was sufficiently flexible to adjust to the presence and behavior of an unfamiliar partner, an important component of an integrated study of social behavior.
Abstract: Three pairs of rats were trained to synchronize their lever pressing according to a mutual reinforcement contingency, in which alternating lever presses that fell within a 500-ms window were reinforced with food. In Experiment 1, rats worked in adjacent chambers separated by a transparent barrier, and the effects of the mutual reinforcement contingency were compared with those under yoked-control conditions that provided the same rate of food reinforcement but without the temporal coordination response requirement. In Experiment 2, coordinated behavior was compared with and without a barrier, and across different barrier types: transparent, opaque, wire mesh. In Experiment 3, the effects of social familiarity were assessed by switching partners, enabling a comparison of coordinated behavior with familiar and unfamiliar partners. The overall pattern of results shows that the coordinated behavior of 2 rats was (a) maintained by mutual reinforcement contingencies, (b) unrelated to the type or presence of a barrier separating the rats, and (c) sufficiently flexible to adjust to the presence and behavior of an unfamiliar partner. Taken as a whole, the study illustrates a promising approach to conceptualizing and analyzing behavioral mechanisms of mutual behavior, an important component of an integrated study of social behavior.
TL;DR: Apes did not show a general "selective-value" effect but chose depending on the relative value of the food items involved, and generally chose the mixed option.
Abstract: We investigated how apes allocated their choices between 2 food options that varied in terms of their quantity and quality. Experiment 1 tested whether subjects preferred an AB option over an A option, where the A item is preferred to the B item (e.g., apple + carrot vs. apple). Additionally, we tested whether the length of the intertrial interval (ITI) affected subjects' choices. Five orangutans, 4 gorillas, 7 bonobos, and 10 chimpanzees received 3 types of trials: preference (A vs. B), quantity (AA vs. A), and mixed (AB vs. A where A is the preferred food). We used 3 food items that substantially differed in terms of preference (carrots, apples, and pellets). Subjects showed no overall preference for the mixed option (AB) compared with the single option (A), even though they showed clear preferences during both the preference and quantity trials. The intertrial length had no effect on choice behavior. Experiment 2 further explored apes' choices by using 3 highly preferred food items (bananas, grapes, and pellets) in 6 orangutans, 4 gorillas, 8 bonobos, and 18 chimpanzees. Unlike the results of Experiment 1, apes generally chose the mixed option. Our results indicated that apes did not show a general "selective-value" effect but chose depending on the relative value of the food items involved. Subjects were more likely to select the mixed over the single option when (a) the mixed option was composed of items that were closer in value and (b) they were compared against the less valuable item forming the mixed option.
TL;DR: Results suggest that motor laterality in the cat is strongly related to temperament and that the presence or absence of lateralization has greater implications for the expression of emotion in this species than the direction of the lateralized bias.
Abstract: Research points to a relationship between lateralization and emotional functioning in humans and many species of animal. The present study explored the association between paw preferences and emotional functioning, specifically temperament, in a species thus far overlooked in this area, the domestic cat. Thirty left-pawed, 30 right-pawed, and 30 ambilateral pet cats were recruited following an assessment of their paw preferences using a food-reaching challenge. The animals' temperament was subsequently assessed using the Feline Temperament Profile (FTP). Cats' owners also completed a purpose-designed cat temperament (CAT) scale. Analysis revealed a significant relationship between lateral bias and FTP and CAT scale scores. Ambilateral cats had lower positive (FTP+) scores, and were perceived as less affectionate, obedient, friendly, and more aggressive, than left or right-pawed animals. Left and right pawed cats differed significantly on 1 trait on the CAT scale, namely playfulness. The strength of the cats' paw preferences was related to the animals' FTP and CAT scores. Cats with a greater strength of paw preference had higher FTP+ scores than those with a weaker strength of paw preference. Animals with stronger paw preferences were perceived as more confident, affectionate, active, and friendly than those with weaker paw preferences. Results suggest that motor laterality in the cat is strongly related to temperament and that the presence or absence of lateralization has greater implications for the expression of emotion in this species than the direction of the lateralized bias. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: It was found that tank geometry did not affect group polarization, whereas group size had an effect on black neon tetra density, which was higher in small group sizes than in large ones.
Abstract: Fish can gain significant adaptive advantages when living in a group and they exhibit a wide variety of types of collective motion. The scientific literature recognizes 2 main patterns: shoals (aggregations of individuals that remain close to each other), and schools (aggregations of aligned, or polarized, individuals). We analyzed the collective motion of 2 social fish species, zebrafish (Danio rerio) and black neon tetra (Hyphessobrycon herbertaxelrodi), and compared their patterns of movement and the effect of group size and environmental constraints such as water column height and tank geometry on the collective motion of both species. We recorded the movement of groups of fish (n = 10 and n = 20) using 2 tank geometries: a rectangular shape and a rectangular shape with rounded corners; and we also manipulated the water column height (15 and 25 cm). We extracted the individual fish trajectories and calculated indices of cohesion, coordination, group density and group shape. The results showed that the 2 species had different types of collective motion: the zebrafish's global motion matched that of a shoal, while the black neon tetra's motion matched that of a school. Indirect evidence indicated that the 2 species tended to occupy the vertical space differently while swimming in a group. Finally, we found that tank geometry did not affect group polarization, whereas group size had an effect on black neon tetra density, which was higher in small group sizes than in large ones. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: It is concluded that, beyond the physical nature of a conflict, bonobos possess certain social expectations about how they should be treated and will publicly protest with acoustically distinctive vocal signals if these expectations are violated.
Abstract: Research has shown that great apes possess certain expectations about social regularities and both perceive and act according to social rules within their group. During natural and experimentally induced contexts, such as the inequitable distribution of resources, individuals also show protesting behaviors when their expectations about a social situation are violated. Despite broad interest in this topic, systematic research examining the nature of these expectations and the communicative signals individuals use to express them remains scant. Here, we addressed this by exploring whether bonobos (Pan paniscus) respond to violations of social expectations in naturally occurring social interactions, focusing on the vocal behavior of victims following socially expected and unexpected aggression. Expected aggression included conflicts over a contested resource and conflicts that were provoked by the victim. Unexpected aggression was any spontaneous, unprovoked hostility toward the victim. For each conflict, we also determined its severity and the composition of the nearby audience. We found that the acoustic and temporal structure of victim screams was individually distinct and varied significantly depending on whether or not aggression could be socially predicted. Certain acoustic parameters also varied as a function of conflict severity, but unlike social expectation, conflict severity did not discriminate scream acoustic structure overall. We found no effect of audience composition. We concluded that, beyond the physical nature of a conflict, bonobos possess certain social expectations about how they should be treated and will publicly protest with acoustically distinctive vocal signals if these expectations are violated.
TL;DR: The results indicate that major features of capuchin personality are conserved and that the structure of some traits, such as those related to focus, persistence, and attention, diverged, and further work is needed to identify the evolutionary bases that led to the conservation of some dimensions.
Abstract: One way to gain insights into personality evolution is by comparing the personality structures of related species. We compared the personality structure of 240 wild white-faced capuchin monkeys to the personality structure of 100 captive brown capuchin monkeys. An ancillary goal was to test the degree to which different personality questionnaires yielded similar personality dimensions. Both species were rated on a common set of 26 antonym pairs. The brown capuchin monkeys were also rated on the 54-item Hominoid Personality Questionnaire. Our cross-species comparisons revealed three personality dimensions---Assertiveness, Openness, and Neuroticism---shared by brown and white-faced capuchins, suggesting that these dimensions were present in the common ancestor of these species. Our comparison of the dimensions derived from the antonym pairs and the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire revealed that three common dimensions were identified by both questionnaires. In addition, the dimension Attentiveness was only identified using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire. These results indicate that major features of capuchin personality are conserved and that the structure of some traits, such as those related to focus, persistence, and attention, diverged. Further work is needed to identify the evolutionary bases that led to the conservation of some dimensions but not others.
TL;DR: Results suggest choice behavior can be optimized for 1 component but suboptimal for others depending upon the complexity of alterations in outcome value between options.
Abstract: Choice behavior combines discrimination between distinctive outcomes, preference for specific outcomes and relative valuation of comparable outcomes. Previous work has focused on 1 component (i.e., preference) disregarding other influential processes that might provide a more complete understanding. Animal models of choice have been explored primarily utilizing extensive training, limited freedom for multiple decisions and sparse behavioral measures constrained to a single phase of motivated action. The present study used a paradigm that combines different elements of previous methods with the goal to distinguish among components of choice and explore how well components match predictions based on risk-sensitive foraging strategies. In order to analyze discrimination and relative valuation, it was necessary to have an option that shifted and an option that remained constant. Shifting outcomes among weeks included a change in single-option outcome (0 to 1 to 2 pellets) or a change in mixed-option outcome (0 or 5 to 0 or 3 to 0 or 1 pellets). Constant outcomes among weeks were also mixed-option (0 or 3 pellets) or single-option (1 pellet). Shifting single-option outcomes among weeks led to better discrimination, more robust preference and significant incentive contrast effects for the alternative outcome. Shifting multioptions altered choice components and led to dissociations among discrimination, preference, and reduced contrast effects. During extinction, all components were impacted with the greatest deficits during the shifting mixed-option outcome sessions. Results suggest choice behavior can be optimized for 1 component but suboptimal for others depending upon the complexity of alterations in outcome value between options. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: It was found that innovators were more explorative than noninnovators, although they did not differ significantly in social rank, object neophobia or sex, and the role of other model characteristics, such as relationships, on the use of social information.
Abstract: Innovation and social information use are influenced by individual characteristics, and are important for the creation and transmission of novel behavioral patterns. Here, we investigated which individual factors predict innovation rates and social transmission of information in a comparative study with identically reared common ravens (Corvus corax) and carrion crows (Corvus corone corone; Corvus corone cornix). In the innovation experiment (1), we presented the birds with a novel problem-solving task while alone, to determine which individuals would quickly solve ("innovators") or not solve ("noninnovators") this task. We then related these findings to sex, object exploration (frequency of novel item manipulation), object neophobia (latency to novel item interaction), and social rank position. We found that innovators were more explorative than noninnovators, although they did not differ significantly in social rank, object neophobia or sex. In the social information use experiments (2 & 3), subjects first observed a model (Exp. 2: conspecific, heterospecific; Exp. 3: conspecific innovator & noninnovator) demonstrate a specific color selection in a 2-choice cup task, before being allowed to make their own cup selection. Innovator and noninnovator observers did not significantly differ in their tendency to use social information, that is, to select the demonstrated cup first, from a conspecific or heterospecific model. Furthermore, observers did not preferentially use social information from an innovator over a noninnovator model. We discuss our findings in relation to the likely benefits of flexible information use, and the role of other model characteristics, such as relationships, on the use of social information. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: Comparative psychology provides a number of examples of behaviors that have been considered to be above and beyond the explanation of associative-, or reinforcement-learning mechanisms, and alternative explanations for these behaviors from an associative perspective are provided.
Abstract: Thorndike (1898, 1911) rejected the idea that animal behavior was the consequence of reasoning, and suggested instead that the gradual acquisition of associations formed the basis of behavior-a contention that has had a significant impact on the development of animal learning theory. Despite this, comparative psychology provides a number of examples of behaviors that have been considered to be above and beyond the explanation of associative-, or reinforcement-learning mechanisms. These behaviors have motivated some researchers to propose higher-order cognitive abilities in animals, including (but not limited to) reasoning, sensitivity to ambiguity, and metacognition. However, other authors have questioned this claim, and provided alternative explanations for these behaviors from an associative perspective. With relevant examples, the steps that must be taken in order to overcome an associative explanation of behavior are described. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: Results suggest an important role of factors such as posture and task complexity in the evolution of primate manual lateralization and the effect of taxonomic group, sex and age on primate handedness.
Abstract: Handedness is the most evident behavioral asymmetry in humans: to study nonhuman primate hand preference could be optimal to investigate the evolutionary origin of handedness in our species, even though behavioral asymmetries are widespread among vertebrates. This study investigated hand preferences in 32 Old World monkeys and 26 great apes during 3 spontaneous actions, assessing the effect of taxonomic group, sex and age on primate handedness. Data about foraging, locomotion, and manipulation were collected and 50 bouts per behavioral category per subject were recorded. A bias toward right-hand use for starting locomotion was reported in both Old World monkeys and great apes. Furthermore, in the great apes, a group-level right-hand preference for manipulation was found. Results suggest an important role of factors such as posture and task complexity in the evolution of primate manual lateralization. The effect of taxonomic group, sex, and age on the hand preference are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: Comparisons show differences across species regarding the extent to which they benefit from differences in consonance, and suggest that for humans, consonance might be used as a perceptual anchor for other cognitive processes as to facilitate the detection of abstract patterns.
Abstract: Consonance is a salient perceptual feature in harmonic music associated with pleasantness. Besides being deeply rooted in how we experience music, research suggests consonant intervals are more easily processed than dissonant intervals. In the present work we explore from a comparative perspective if such processing advantage extends to more complex tasks such as the detection of abstract rules. We ran experiments on rule learning over consonant and dissonant intervals with nonhuman animals and human participants. Results show differences across species regarding the extent to which they benefit from differences in consonance. Animals learn abstract rules with the same ease independently of whether they are implemented over consonant intervals (Experiment 1), dissonant intervals (Experiment 2), or over a combination of them (Experiment 3). Humans, on the contrary, learn an abstract rule better when it is implemented over consonant (Experiment 4) than over dissonant intervals (Experiment 5). Moreover, their performance improves when there is a mapping between abstract categories defining a rule and consonant and dissonant intervals (Experiments 6 and 7). Results suggest that for humans, consonance might be used as a perceptual anchor for other cognitive processes as to facilitate the detection of abstract patterns. Lacking extensive experience with harmonic stimuli, nonhuman animals tested here do not seem to benefit from a processing advantage for consonant intervals. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: It is suggested that excessive searches may be caused by food being a strong stimulus and the relevance of this possibility for metacognitive research involving the tubes task is discussed.
Abstract: Nonhuman primates appear to engage in metacognition by knowing when they need to search for relevant information for solving the tubes task. The task involves presenting subjects with a number of tubes with only 1 having food hidden inside. Before choosing, subjects look inside the tubes more often when they do not know which 1 contains the food (hidden trials) compared to when they do know this information (visible trials). It is argued, however, that nonmetacognitive general food searching strategies can explain this looking behavior. To address this issue, 3 orangutans were tested with a novel tubes task in which they were only required to seek information about tool functionality. The results showed that subjects had the ability to search for tool functionality but no subject looked significantly more in hidden trials compared to visible trials. Subjects were retested with the same condition and given a second condition in which the cost of a wrong choice was increased. In both conditions, 2 subjects looked significantly more inside the hidden trials compared to the visible trials. Subjects were also tested with the traditional tubes task in which food was hidden inside 1 tube. All subjects looked inside the tubes significantly more in the hidden trials compared to the visible trials. However, subjects conducted more excessive looks compared to when looking for tool functionality. I suggest that excessive searches may be caused by food being a strong stimulus and discuss the relevance of this possibility for metacognitive research involving the tubes task.
TL;DR: This work conducted possibly the first investigation of the timing abilities of a marsupial common to Australia and New Zealand, the brushtail possum, using FI 15-, 30-, and 60-s schedules of reinforcement in the peak procedure, showing that timing responses of possums likely conforms to the scalar property of timing also shown by other species.
Abstract: Many diverse species have demonstrated interval timing, the ability to respond appropriately to time in the range of seconds to minutes, suggesting that an ability to time is adaptive. The peak procedure is a common method of studying interval time perception. In the peak procedure, animals experience a mix of fixed-interval (FI) and extinction (EXT) trials. On EXT trials, responding typically increases to a peak at the time the FI schedule would normally deliver reinforcers before decreasing. Responding on different FI schedules within the peak procedure has been found to conform to Weber's law, whereby response variability is proportional to the length of the fixed interval. We conducted possibly the first investigation of the timing abilities of a marsupial common to Australia and New Zealand, the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula), using FI 15-, 30-, and 60-s schedules of reinforcement in the peak procedure. Response rates on EXT trials peaked at the time of usual reinforcer delivery, decreasing at longer time intervals, and were well fit by 3-parameter Gaussian curves, demonstrating the ability of possums to respond to time-based stimuli. Coefficients of variation suggested that the ability of possums to time was less accurate than that of mammals, but similar to that of birds, invertebrates, and reptiles. Coefficients of variation did not differ consistently over increasing FI intervals, showing that timing responses of possums likely conforms to the scalar property of timing also shown by other species. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: This study of frustration responses in a free-ranging animal extends the conclusions of captive studies to the field and demonstrates that fox squirrels show short-term negatively valenced responses to the inaccessibility, omission, and change of reinforcement.
Abstract: Under natural conditions, wild animals encounter situations where previously rewarded actions do not lead to reinforcement. In the laboratory, a surprising omission of reinforcement induces behavioral and emotional responses described as frustration. Frustration can lead to aggressive behaviors and to the persistence of noneffective responses, but it may also lead to new behavioral responses to a problem, a potential adaptation. We assessed the responses to inaccessible reinforcement in free-ranging fox squirrels (Sciurus niger). We trained squirrels to open a box to obtain food reinforcement, a piece of walnut. After 9 training trials, squirrels were tested in 1 of 4 conditions: a control condition with the expected reward, an alternative reinforcement (a piece of dried corn), an empty box, or a locked box. We measured the presence of signals suggesting arousal (e.g., tail flags and tail twitches) and found that squirrels performed fewer of these behaviors in the control condition and increased certain behaviors (tail flags, biting box) in the locked box condition, compared to other experimental conditions. When faced with nonreinforcement, that is, frustration, squirrels increased the number of interactions with the apparatus and spent more time interacting with the apparatus. This study of frustration responses in a free-ranging animal extends the conclusions of captive studies to the field and demonstrates that fox squirrels show short-term negatively valenced responses to the inaccessibility, omission, and change of reinforcement. (PsycINFO Database Record
TL;DR: The results indicate that when chickadees and titmice detect a perched avian predator, they assess risk primarily based upon its head orientation.
Abstract: Individuals of many prey species adjust their foraging behavior in response to the presence of a predator. Responding to predators takes time away from searching for and exploiting food resources. To balance between the need to avoid predation and the need to forage, individuals should attend to cues from predators that indicate risk. Two such cues might be the predator's head orientation (where it might be looking) and body orientation (where it might be moving). In the current study, flocks of Carolina chickadees, Poecile carolinensis, and tufted titmice, Baeolophus bicolor, were presented with perched hawk and owl models. Predator model head and body orientation were independently manipulated relative to a feeding station birds were using. Chickadees and titmice avoided the feeders more when the heads of the models were facing toward the feeders compared to facing away from the feeders. Calling behavior of birds was also affected by head orientation of the models. No effect of predator body orientation on chickadee and titmouse behavior was detected. The results indicate that when chickadees and titmice detect a perched avian predator, they assess risk primarily based upon its head orientation. (PsycINFO Database Record