Showing papers in "Journal of occupational psychology in 1986"

Explaining intergroup differentiation in an industrial organization

Abstract: We report a study of intergroup relations in a paper factory in which we examine the utility of three social-psychological approaches: realistic conflict theory, the contact hypothesis and social identity theory. A sample of 177 shop floor workers from five different departments was interviewed. From them, measures of intergroup differentiation, perceived intergroup conflict, amount of intergroup contact, and strength of workgroup identification were obtained. The latter was assessed using a new scale of group identification developed for this study. Reliability and validity data for this scale are reported. Using multiple regression analyses we attempt to explain variance in respondents' intergroup differentiation using the other measures as predictor variables. The most powerful and reliable predictor was perceived conflict which, as expected, was positively correlated with differentiation. Less consistent was amount of contact which was negatively but only weakly associated with differentiation. Strength of group identification, while generally showing a positive correlation with differentiation as predicted, was also only a weak and inconsistent predictor variable. Noting that these results confirm findings from other studies we discuss their theoretical implications.

A longitudinal study of the effects of employment and unemployment on school-leavers

Abstract: The effects of employment and unemployment were investigated in a longitudinal study involving large samples of school-leavers from State high schools in metropolitan Adelaide. The study was also designed to control for possible testing and societal effects. A wide range of variables was investigated that included measures of self-concept (perceived competence, positive attitude, depressive affect, power, activity, and anger), values (desired skill-utilization, variety, influence, employment value, and Protestant work ethic), affect (stress symptoms, life satisfaction, unemployment disappointment), job need, job expectancy, external locus of control, unemployment attributions, academic potential, and social class. Results showed that unemployment led to decreases in perceived competence, activity, and life satisfaction and increases in depressive affect. Unemployment also led to an increased tendency to blame youth unemployment on factors relating to economic recession and a decreased tendency to blame it on lack of motivation on the part of the unemployed; employment had the reverse effect on these unemployment attributions. Some differences between the subsequently employed and unemployed were also present when they were at school. Sex differences were obtained on a number of variables.

Management selection in Britain: A survey and critique

Abstract: The results of a survey of the techniques used for managerial selection from 108 organizations in Great Britain are presented. The results reveal that, whilst the usage by large organizations of assessment centre type exercises and biodata is increasing, most organizations still select managers on the basis of interviews and references. It is argued that psychological research and theory should have a bigger impact on selection practice. The limitations of current research and theory are discussed under the headings of criterion measures, validity and utility, and predictors.

Effects of applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater and type of job on interview decisions*

Abstract: Applicant sex, applicant physical attractiveness, type of rater (120 students and 105 professional employment interviewers) and the type of job were manipulated experimentally in a 2 times 2 × 2 times 2 design. Physical attractiveness of job candidates had the broadest influence on employment decisions. There was no main effect for applicant sex, but professional interviewers were biased in favour of female applicants while student raters were not. Also, as expected, professional interviewers rated job applicants less leniently than students did.

The two sides of the tactics of influence: agent vs. target

Abstract: The study reported here focused on both the target and the agent of influence, and examined the differences in their perceptions of the reasons for and the tactics of influence. Following attribution theory, it was hypothesized that agents would give more reasons than targets signifying power over the targets' behaviour and exercise strong tactics to influence their targets. On the other hand, targets would minimize the strong tactics being exercised upon them and emphasize reasons signifying their self-control and agents' dependence on their help. The differences between agents and targets were expected to be more significant for bosses as agents and subordinates as targets than for any other status-perspective combination. A total of 206 middle-level managers participated in the study; 125 of them responded as agents and 81 responded as targets. Kipnis et al.'s (1980) questionnaire, consisting of five reasons for influencing others and 58 tactics of influence, was used. Nine dimensions of influence were found by factor analyses. Results clearly supported the research hypotheses.

Alternative models to guide the design and introduction of the new information technologies into work organizations

Abstract: There is an important need for a wider public recognition of psychological approaches to the design and introduction of the new work systems based on microelectronics. The economic and political climate in the UK has not been very supportive of social science orientations, however, and approaches which have been influenced by psychological theory have been limited in their effects. Contributions made by ergonomics, socio-technical theory and participative systems design are considered, and criticisms that have been made of each are reviewed. In an analysis of how psychological and social science approaches differ from conventional views on how best to manage the introduction of the technologies two alternative models, the ‘task and technology approach’ and the ‘organization and end-user approach’, are presented. Stages in the cycle of innovation associated with the introduction of the technologies are identified and alternative assumptions that may guide practices within them are outlined. The need for a wider appreciation of the advantages of the ‘organization and end-user approach’ is discussed. It is suggested that psychologists should emphasize the indeter-minism of the technologies, develop techniques to assist people to exploit this in particular situations, and cultivate an ‘inclusive’ orientation to the presentation of their work.

The social support and health relationship: Is there a gender difference?

Abstract: Social support has generally been found to have a positive effect on health outcomes. Recently, however, it has been suggested that the existence of these benefits is dependent on the source of support and the gender of the individual receiving the support. Specifically, it has been argued that employed males benefit from work-based sources of support while employed females rely on family or non-work sources. The present study tests this proposition while controlling for variables which may be confounded with gender in the workforce. Several health and satisfaction variables are investigated. The relationship between gender and amount of social support from various sources is also explored. Findings suggest (a) that social support does have various beneficial effects on health outcomes, (b) that gender has little bearing on the amount of support received, and (c) there are few gender differences in the effects of social support on health. Those differences that were found were in the opposite direction of what was expected.

The multidimensionality of union participation

Abstract: In spite of numerous methodological improvements to the study of union participation, recent studies have continued to operationalize the criterion by combining several different union activities to form a single composite index. Yet there are indications that union participation is a multidimensional construct which means that, for research purposes, specific types of union involvement ought to be studied separately in order to maximize an understanding of this phenomenon. This study tests the multidimensionality of union participation by examining the internal consistency and parallelism of several union activities through factor analysis, reliability analysis and multiple regression analysis. The results strongly support the multidimensional perspective and are discussed in terms of moving towards this new direction in union-management research.

The relationship between skill utilization, professional orientation and job satisfaction for pharmacists

Abstract: Technological changes in the manufacture of drugs have caused community pharmacists to lose control over the use of their specialized knowledge The study described here sought to examine the consequences of these structural changes for pharmacists' perceptions of their skill utilization, job influence and job satisfaction It was predicted that the job satisfaction-job attribute relationship for pharmacists would be moderated by their professional orientation—the degree to which they wanted to use their specialized skills and have influence over drug distribution This prediction was tested with a sample of 396 South Australian pharmacists using hierarchical multiple regression It was found that community, but not hospital, pharmacists had significantly lower levels of skill utilization and job satisfaction than that found for other professional occupations Professional role orientation was not a significant moderator of the relationship between skill utilization, job influence and job satisfaction Skill utilization was the major predictor of job satisfaction and accounted for up to 32 per cent of unique variance in job satisfaction

Adaptation by employees to new technology

Abstract: Newspaper compositors, whose work has been redefined following the replacement of hot-metal technology by an electronic production process, have been surveyed and interviewed some three years after the change. Data were sought concerning their attitudes to their new task content, their reaction to the change in work methods and control, and their ideas about their future. The sample has experienced reduced influence over the decisions of senior management, less utilization of old skills, and reduced future opportunities. However, the majority have adjusted to the change and some prefer it.

Changes in self-perceived ability as a function of performance in an assessment centre

Abstract: Changes in self-perceived ability as a function of performance in an assessment centre were evaluated. Centre participants (n = 1693) provided self-ratings on eight ability dimensions before and immediately after the assessment centre experience. Performance measures on five different exercises were provided by assessors. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated significant changes in perceived ability on five of the eight assessment centre dimensions. Further, the effect of specific centre exercises reflected changes in self-perceived ability (e.g. planning and organizing) which were consistent with the type of exercise (e.g. in-tray) under study. Suggestions for further research on self-assessments specifically in the context of assessment centre participation are provided.

An evaluation of psychotherapy for job-related distress

Abstract: This paper reports findings from a project which evaluated two forms of individual psychotherapy for 40 managerial/professional workers seeking help for clinically severe job-related distress. In order to throw light upon the paradox suggested by previous research that psychotherapeutic techniques differ in their content but are quite similar in outcome, these clients suffering from clinical levels of psychiatric symptoms, received eight sessions of Prescriptive (cognitive/behavioural) and eight sessions of Exploratory (relationship-oriented) therapy in a crossover design, with each client seeing the same therapist throughout. At three-month follow-up results showed a reduction in distress to within the normal range in three-quarters of clients. Results favoured Prescriptive therapy for reduction of overall symptoms, but showed no difference between therapies for the relief of job-related problems. It is argued that treating individuals suffering from acknowledged distress is perhaps a more useful way of approaching stress management than the preventive group work for non-stressed subjects usually reported. In addition the paper considers the types of job-related problems presented by clients seeking help.

Career goals, organizational reward systems and technical updating in engineers

Abstract: The relationships among engineers' career aspirations, technical obsolescence, personal variables, work characteristics, and perceptions of the organization's reward system were examined in this study. A discriminant function analysis indicated that (a) perceptions of the organization's reward system for management careers and (b) administrative performance were two dimensions that could correctly classify 59·8 per cent of the engineers into one of three career-orientation groups. Career orientation was unrelated to the amount of technical updating an engineer was currently engaged in; however, individuals aspiring to management careers were engaged in more coursework of a general, broadening nature. Also, the better technical performers most desired future management careers. Career orientations are discussed in terms of age, career stages, and organizational reward system. Changes in organizational reward systems and in work characteristics are suggested because of their consequences for technical personnel.

Voluntary union membership of women and men: Differences in personal characteristics, perceptions and attitudes

Abstract: On the basis of previous research and unincorporated theories of attitude formation and learning, multivariate analysis of variance and discriminant analysis were used to identify differences in personal characteristics, perceptions and attitudes of union members and non-members in general, and by sex. The study used a natural field setting incorporating the unusual characteristics of: (a) substantial proportions of women, (b) complete volition in the membership decision, and (c) control of non-random confounding variables across employment settings. The study therefore addressed particular limitations of previous studies in this area. Results indicate that differences exist, in accordance with relevant theory, between voluntary members and non-members, and potentially important sex differences exist within these groups as well.

Accuracy and reliability of SDy estimates in utility analysis

Abstract: The accuracy and reliability of SDy estimates (the standard deviation of job performance in Dollars) derived using the method introduced by Schmidt et al. (1979) was investigated using estimates for the position of medical insurance claim approver. As a test of accuracy, the resulting estimates of SDy and Dollar values of performance at the 15th, 50th, and 85th percentiles were compared to more objective values of these parameters based on job information. Although the estimates of SDy were significantly lower than the actual SDy value, the estimates of the Dollar value of performance at all three percentiles were not significantly different from the actual values. The inter-rater reliability of the Schmidt el al. method was investigated within the context of generalizability theory and was found to be relatively low (p2=0·56), as was the stability of SDy estimates over a six-month period (r=0·38).

Third parties at work: Conflict resolution or social control?

Abstract: This paper outlines field and experimental research on third party intervention in industrial disputes. The majority of research has been carried out on the basis of an instrumental, individualistic model of social relations, which conceives of mediators as conciliatory devices and arbitrators as threatening devices. The main aim of research has been to demonstrate, in terms of a relatively simple causal model of behaviour, the effectiveness of such interventions in producing settlements, but the results have been mixed. First, conciliatory techniques, which are directed at improving personal relations, seem to be most useful in disputes where negotiators are not committed to represent a party and where negotiations themselves are primarily interpersonal and without long-term consequences. The same techniques are likely to be regarded suspiciously or interpreted differently in actual conflicts between employers and unions. Second, given that the favoured norm of the parties is voluntary settlement, arbitration is regarded paradoxically as more successful the less it is used. Comparisons of types of arbitration suggest that parties will act strategically, depending on whether they expect the arbitrator to offer a compromise solution or choose the final offer of either side. In general, it can be argued that third parties are also parties to negotiation rather than ‘neutrals’. The positivist approach adopted by the majority of researchers has resulted in very restricted models of third party intervention and little work has been carried out on the development of an interpretative model of third party processes. Many interesting psychological processes have therefore been excluded: in particular, the normative frameworks which define socially acceptable forms of dispute and legitimate types of argument.

Union growth and decline: The impact of employer and union tactics

Abstract: The past decade has generally not been a time of prosperity for organized labour, especially in the United States. It is now estimated that only about 19 per cent of the American workforce is unionized (Adams, 1985), compared with an all-time high of approximately 30 per cent. It is widely believed that this results from changes in organizing strategies used by both unions and, in particular, employers. The resistance of American employers to unionization has clearly increased over the past quarter of a century, spawning a multimillion dollar industry (Bureau of National Affairs, 1985). At the forefront of the ‘union-free environment’ movement is a formidable array of management consultants and attorneys, dubbed ‘union busters’ by a disdainful labour movement. This paper examines the nature of union organizing and employer counter-organizing efforts and the role of the new breed of union resistance specialists. Although written from a North American perspective, the activities and research findings discussed here should be of relevance in Europe and elsewhere. Indeed, many American multinationals have implemented union resistance programmes in foreign subsidiaries and aspects of these programmes have been adopted by some non-American firms.

Transfer of training: A field study of some training methods

Abstract: This study investigated, in the field, the effect on transfer of training of four different training methods. A ‘transfer module’ of one of four sorts for each trainee was added to training in micrometer use then, after a 13-week lay-off, training in vernier height-gauge use was undertaken. The subjects were trainees on Youth Training Scheme construction courses. The results showed that subjects who received a transfer module consisting of exposition of the principle of vernier scales were more effectively trained to use vernier height-gauges than subjects in all other groups. Subjects whose transfer module consisted of practical use of a wide variety of high-accuracy measuring tools were more effectively trained to use a vernier height-gauge than subjects in a control group who received no transfer module. Subjects whose training module was further practice with micrometers and those who learned about relationships between measuring tools, tasks, and jobs were no more effectively trained to use a vernier height-guage than were control subjects. Results are discussed in terms of knowledge/action structures of memory which may be mechanisms of transfer.

The halo effect: It is a unitary concept! A reply to Fox et al. (1983)

Abstract: Fox et al. (1983) concluded that halo is not a unitary concept. This paper argues that their conclusion is erroneous and that it is based on a misunderstanding of the role of variance in statistical analysis, a mistaken use of ANOVA to calculate halo, and the confusion of those analyses that measure the similarity in ratings across raters with those that compare the similarities in ratings under different rating conditions.

The Ansells brewery dispute: A social-cognitive approach to the study of strikes

Abstract: A participant observation method was employed in the study of a 20-week strike at Ansells Brewery Ltd, a constituent company of Allied Breweries (UK). The strike, involving 1000 workers, began in opposition to the implementation of a four-day working week and culminated in the permanent closure of the brewery. The strike's development is analysed according to a social-cognitive approach, based on the psychological imagery, beliefs, values and perceptions underlying the employees' behaviour. By also adopting a historical perspective, it has been possible to show how contemporary definitions of reality are shaped by the prior history of union-management relations, particularly with regard to the way that previous events were subjectively interpreted, and the lessons that were learned on the basis of that experience.

A note concerning the comparability of the standard and automated versions of the Vocational Preference Inventory

Abstract: This study investigated the feasibility of administering the Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) by computer. Ninety-nine subjects completed the standard and automated versions of the VPI on an alternate-forms test-retest basis. The two forms were found to be comparable. Consequently, it is recommended that the use of the computerized version of this test be continued.

Heroism is no substitute for success: Effects of strategy and outcome on perceptions of performance

Abstract: Two studies were conducted to determine whether performance ratings are more heavily influenced by raters' perceptions of the ratee's ‘heroism’—that is consistent behaviour in the face of failure—or by raters' perceptions of the ratee's level of success. Effects of ratee gender were also investigated. Neither a student sample (n=179) nor a management sample (n=127) provided evidence in support of a heroism effect; the effects of strategy (consistent or experimenting) and timing of success or failure (immediate or delayed) were relatively small. Success and failure had the strongest and most consistent effects on performance ratings. These results supported the proposition that raters' perceptions of a ratee's performance—level of success—are the primary determinants of ratings, and that ‘heroic’ perseverance in the face of failure does not result in higher ratings.