Showing papers in "Materials Science and Engineering B-advanced Functional Solid-state Materials in 1989"
IBM1
TL;DR: A review of the present understanding of silicon surface modifications resulting from reactive ion etching (RIE) is presented in this paper, where spectroscopic evidence for silicon substrate defects produced by reactive low pressure plasmas, the effect of hydrogen in the feed gas in promoting the formation of extended silicon defects and modifying the electrical properties of the silicon substrate, and the dependence of residual silicon near-surface modifications on important dry etch process parameters such as the silicon etch rate is surveyed.
Abstract: A review of our present understanding of silicon surface modifications resulting from reactive ion etching (RIE) is presented. The spectroscopic evidence for silicon substrate defects produced by reactive low pressure plasmas, the effect of hydrogen in the feed gas in promoting the formation of extended silicon defects and modifying the electrical properties of the silicon substrate, and the dependence of residual silicon near-surface modifications on important dry etch process parameters such as the silicon etch rate is surveyed. The experimental evidence for the importance of diffusion effects is summarized. Issues associated with annealing treatments of RIE defects are discussed. The paper concludes with a listing of oustanding issued and current trends in dry etching, enabling improved dry etch damage control.
147 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a new implicit finite difference method was developed to simulate the interaction of intense nanosecond laser beams with semiconductors and metal-coated ceramics.
Abstract: We have developed a new implicit finite difference method to simulate the interaction of intense nanosecond laser beams with semiconductors and metal-coated ceramic structures. This method is based upon a higher order implicit finite difference scheme with a smaller truncation error and is not restricted by any stability criterion, thereby allowing faster convergence to the exact solution. The temperature-dependent optical and thermal properties of the irradiated material as well as the temporal variation in the laser intensity have been taken into account. Finite difference equations have been set up for accurate determination of the temperature gradients at the liquid-solid interface, which control the melt-in and resolidification velocities. A new formulation is introduced to accomodate the effect of pulsed laser irradiation on layered composite structures (e.g. metal-coated ceramics) by incorporating the boundary conditions at the composite interface. Using this method, the thermal histories of laser-irradiated materials were predicted. The effects of variation in the pulse energy density, pulse duration and substrate temperature on the maximum melt depths, solidification velocities and surface temperatures were computed. The calculations on the depth of melting were found to be in good agreement with experimental results where complete annealing of the ion implantation damage was used as a measure of the melt depth. The surface temperatures and melt lifetimes in metal-coated ceramics were determined in order to understand the laser mixing process. Simple energy balance considerations were applied to calculate some of the effects of laser irradiation on materials. From these energy considerations, the maximum melt depths as a function of energy density, pulse duration and substrate temperature were obtained and compared with the exact solutions. The maximum surface temperatures, solidification velocities and melt lifetimes were also determined by this analytical method and compared with the detailed calculations. A good agreement between the analytical relations and the detailed numerical calculations provides an excellent guide to researchers in this field.
112 citations
TL;DR: In this article, defects created by intercalation in MoS2 single crystals were studied by plane and cross-sectional electron microscopy, showing that the effect is to create extensive dislocations and a structural transformation of the type 2H → 1T, as is evident from the appearance of spots in the diffraction pattern belonging to the new phase.
Abstract: Defects created by intercalation in MoS2 single crystals were studied by plane and cross-sectional electron microscopy. In the first stage of intercalation the effect is to create extensive dislocations. Further intercalation leads to a structural transformation of the type 2H → 1T , as is evident from the appearance of spots in the diffraction pattern belonging to the new phase. In addition, the transformation is accompanied by a 2a 0 × 2a 0 superstructure. This superstructure is unstable and disappears on heating, while the structural transformation is irreversible.
80 citations
TL;DR: The sol-gel process offers new approaches to the synthesis of electrochromic materials as mentioned in this paper, which can be easily deposited by dip coating, and can even be obtained with three-colour devices (red-yellow-green).
Abstract: The sol-gel process offers new approaches to the synthesis of electrochromic materials. Oxide networks are formed upon hydrolysis-condensation of alkoxide precursors. Layers can be easily deposited by dip coating. V 2 O 5 gels give rise to anisotropic electrochromic layers that turn from yellow to green. A three-colour device (red-yellow-green) can even be obtained with thick V 2 O 5 layers. TiO 2 gels give amorphous coatings that turn from transparent to grey. However, it has to be pointed out that the colouration of the electrochromic layer can be changed by using chemical additives such as acetic acid. The coloured state thus becomes blue instead of grey.
74 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the first reason for the use of thin films in battery technology was the low ionic conductivity of the solid electrolyte used; reducing its thickness provided a relatively low internal resistance to the cells.
Abstract: Different technologies allow one to obtain battery materials in the form of thin films. Physical methods, i.e. evaporation or sputtering, and chemical methods, i.e. chemical vapour deposition, are mainly used. Thin film microbatteries have been studied for 30 years. The first reason for the use of thin films in battery technology was the low ionic conductivity of the solid electrolyte used; reducing its thickness provided a relatively low internal resistance to the cells. After this first step concerning mainly the electrolyte, thin film technologies were applied to all the battery elements. Following the miniaturization of electronic devices, thin film solid state batteries are receiving some new attention, motivated by the desire for a battery that can be fully integrated with microcircuits. Lithium microbatteries have been the most studied; while some of them are the replica of “classical” batteries using a liquid elettrolyte, e.g. the Li/TiS 2 system, others use new materials. Very interesting results have been obtained. Because of the very high conductivity of silver conducting electrolytes, silver microbatteries have also been extensively studied and significant results obtained with a primary cell design. Other systems using fluoride or copper as ionic conductor have also been considered; they are characterized by a low available voltage.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used ternary sputtered oxide glass (B 2 O 3 -Li 2 O-Li 2 SO 4 ) as the positive electrode and evaporated lithium as the negative electrode for all-solid-state microbatteries.
Abstract: This films of titanium oxysulphides have been obtained by radio-frequency sputtering and used as positive electrodes in all-solid-state microbatteries with ternary sputtered oxide glass (B 2 O 3 -Li 2 O-Li 2 SO 4 ) as the electrolyte and evaporated lithium as the negative electrode. More than 50 cycles were readily obtained for current densities up to 62 μA cm−2. The electrochemical properties have been determined. The positive electrode has been characterized by several techniques: Auger spectroscopy, Rutherford backscattering and secondary ion mass spectrometry.
66 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a water-soluble titanyl acylate precursor, prepared by molecular modification of titanium(IV) isopropoxide, was used with inexpensive water soluble barium acetate for the synthesis of high purity BaTiO3 pwders.
Abstract: Water-soluble titanyl acylate precursor, prepared by molecular modification of titanium(IV) isopropoxide, was used with inexpensive water-soluble barium acetate for the synthesis of high purity BaTiO3 The amorphous gels obtained under acidic conditions were calcined at 1000°C to obtain high purity, crystalline BaTiO3 pwders (sol-gel process) The same precursors were used under alkaline conditions (pH 13) to precipitate crystalline, ultrafine (less than 100 nm) BaTiO3 powders diretly at temperatures below 100°C (sol-precipitation process) On sintering at 1350°C, relatively dense (85%–90%) ceramic bodies with good dielectric properties were obtained from gels calcined at temperatures above 1000°C Sol-precipitated powders were calcined (950–1000°C), compacted and sintered (1350°C) to obtain dense (92%–96%) ceramic bodies without using any sintering additives The room temperature dielectric constant (at 1 KHz) of these ceramics was about 1000 with a dielectric loss (tan δ) of 001 Mechanisms for the evolution of crystalline BaTiO3 in the sol-gel and the sol-precipitation processes are proposed and discussed in the context of microstructure and dielectric properties
56 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the glass-modifying properties of Li 2 O have been investigated in a ternary system B 2 O 3 xLi 2 OyLi 2 Si 4.
Abstract: Infrared spectroscopy investigations of binary glasses B 2 O 3 xLi 2 O with 0 x 1 have been performed in order to understand the glass-modifying properties of Li 2 O. The mid-reflectivity spectra show clearly the disappearance of boroxol rings and the formation, in a first step, of tetraborate groups and later of diborate groups as the oxide content increases. For high values of ξ, borate groups with non-bridging oxygen atoms are formed. One band at about 390 cm −1 is attributed to vabration of the lithium ions. Modifications of the boron-oxygen network with the addition of lithium sulphate as a doping salt have also been investigated in the ternary system B 2 O 3 xLi 2 OyLi 2 Si 4 . At the same time, by far-infrared absorption on the binary glass, the vibrational motion of the lithium cations has been confirmed.
54 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Li+ ionic conductive sulphide glasses and mixed conductive glasses were studied and their electrical and electrochemical properties were measured (open-circuit voltage 2.8-3.1 V).
Abstract: This films fo conductive glasses prepared by radio-frequency sputtering or thermal evaporation were investigated. Both Li+ ionic conductive sulphide glasses and mixed conductive glasses were studied. Microbatteries were designed using these glasses as electrolytes and cathode material. They possess the following electrochemical chain: Li/Li2SSiS2(−P2S5)/V2O5TeO2 Their electrical and electrochemical characteristics were measured (open-circuit voltage 2.8–3.1 V).
47 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, it was found that two levels, at approximately 0.32 and 0.45 eV below the conduction band, originate from irradiation-induced defects involving hydrogen.
Abstract: P + n diodes have been irradiated at nominal room temperature by 1.3 MeV H + or 5.0 MeV He 2+ ions to doses in the range 10 8 –10 10 cm −2 . The diodes were analysed with respect to electron traps in the forbidden band gap by applying deep level transient spectroscopy. It is found that two levels, at approximately 0.32 and 0.45 eV below the conduction band, originate from irradiation-induced defects involving hydrogen. The levels appear at low doses and are presumably caused by low order complexes. On the basis of the experimental results and of computer simulations of the H + implantation profile it is speculated that the two peaks may originate from vacancy-oxygen and divacancy configurations which are partly saturated with hydrogen.
47 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a first-principles theory to calculate multiplet structures of transition metal (TM) deep impurities in semiconductors is developed, where the one-electron energy level structures calculated by the local density functional approach are combined with the ligand field theory.
Abstract: A first-principles theory to calculate multiplet structures of transition metal (TM) deep impurities in semiconductors is developed. In the present theory the one-electron energy level structures calculated by the local density functional approach are combined with the ligand field theory from first principles. This method is applied to various 3d TM impurities in ZnS, ZnSe, GaP and GaAs. It is shown that the characteristic features of the observed optical spectra of TM impurities and the observed chemical trends of the multiplet structures by varying the host materials are reproduced satisfactorily by the present calculations. Furthermore, the crystal field splitting defined in the present theory is found to be quite different from that used in the empirical ligand field theory, and the present one is shown to be more suitable as the quantity defining the crystal field splitting in the light of the physical meaning.
TL;DR: In this paper, the growth conditions of thin films of In x Se y obtained by molecular beam deposition have been studied and the influence of the fluxes of effusion elements and the substrate temperature dependences have been investigated by the characterization of the thin film structure.
Abstract: The growth conditions of thin films of In x Se y obtained by molecular beam deposition have been studied. The influence of the fluxes of effusion elements and the substrate temperature dependences have been investigated by the characterization of the thin film structure. X-ray patterns and Raman scattering spectra show that In 4 Se 3 , InSe and In 2 Se 3 can be formed in a wide range of elemental fluxes.
TL;DR: In this paper, the structure of the layered oxides AxMO2 can be described as a packing of MO2 layers with alkali ions intercalated between them, and the process can be reversible (the integrity of the MO2 slabs being preserved) or partially irreversible (the loss of reversibility from a partial migration of the M element from the layer to the interslab space).
Abstract: AxMO2 layered oxides (A Li, Na; M a 3d or 4d element) have aroused considerable interest as positive electrode materials in secondary batteries with an alkali metal as the negative electrode. The structure of the layered oxides AxMO2 can be described as a packing of MO2 layers with alkali ions intercalated between them. Starting from an AxMO2 oxide synthesized at high temperature, new metastable phases Ax−yMO2 or Ax+zMO2 can be obtained either by deintercalation or intercalation. Depending upon the intercalation rate and the nature of the M element, the process can be reversible (the integrity of the MO2 slabs being preserved) or partially irreversible. In this latter case the loss of reversibility from a partial migration of the M element from the MO2 layer to the interslab space. In the case of sodium intercalation compounds the decrease of the intersheet bonding leads to several structures which differ in terms of their MO2 packing (sheet gliding). For the applications point of view these materials are very interesting as a result of the high cell voltages (3–4 V) attainable. For LIxCoO2 and LixMoO2 systems very high energy densities have been obtained. Electrons play a very important role in both the thermodynamics and the kinetics. In materials with oxygen vacancies, an electronic compensation effect has been shown.
TL;DR: In this article, a series of oxynitrides LaVO3−xNx (0 ⪕ × ⫕ 0.9) has been synthesized and their electrical and magnetic properties studied.
Abstract: A new series of oxynitrides LaVO3−xNx (0 ⪕ × ⪕ 0.9) has been synthesized and their electrical and magnetic properties studied. Contrary to the oxides involving the mixed valence VIII−VIV, no semiconductor-metal transition is observed and all the compounds remain p-type semiconductors.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors interpreted water adsorption and dissociation at the surface of tungsten oxide films as a sign of water saturation and showed that solvent and ion exchange occur spontaneously at the electrolyte-electrode interface, even in the absence of any applied voltage, therefore decreasing the interface discontinuity between the two phases.
Abstract: Tungsten oxide films can be deposited from colloidal solutions in order to make electrochromic devices. Depending on the experimental procedure, more or less hydated crystalline or amorphous oxides can be made. The electrochromic properties of these oxides depend strongly on the amount of water. Li+ diffusion into the oxide layer becomes much easier when their water content increases. This observation is interpreted in terms of water adsorption and dissociation at the surface of the oxide. Solvent and ion exchange occur spontaneously at the electrolyte-electrode interface, even in the absence of any applied voltage, therefore decreasing the interface discontinuity between the two phases.
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of metal silicide thin-film deposition using volatile organometallic complexes is presented, with a number of potential advantages over conventional chemical vapor deposition and molecular beam epitaxy technologies.
Abstract: The deposition of metal silicide thin films can be undertaken using volatile organometallic complexes. Organometallic vapor phase epitaxy or metal-organic chemical vapor phase epitaxy has a number of potential advantages over conventional chemical vapor deposition and molecular beam epitaxy technologies, and a number of novel thin film materials may be made from organometallic compounds. Plasma-, pyrolytic- and photolytic- assisted decomposition of organometallic complexes have been undertaken in an effort to make a variety of metallic and metal silicide thin films. These efforts are comprehensively reviewed.
TL;DR: Water marks are one of the most common contamination problems, which induce various kinds of device defects in (LSI) technology as mentioned in this paper, and water marks are induced on the silicon and poly-silicon surface during the drying process after HF etching.
Abstract: Water marks are one of the most common contamination problems, which induce various kinds of device defects in (LSI) technology. Water marks have been attributed to residues of water used in the cleaning process. However, the purity of deionized water used in LSI fabrication today is extremely high. Nevertheless, we recently found that water marks were induced even with such pure water. Water marks are induced on the silicon and poly-silicon surface during the drying process after HF etching. The mechanism that induces water marks is as follows: (1) dissolution of O2 gas into a water drop on the silicon surface; (2) oxidation of the silicon surface and the dissolution of oxidized silicon (probably H2SiO3) into the water; (3) drying of the water drops and deposition of residual H2SiO3 on the silicon.
TL;DR: In this article, room temperature proton implantation with subsequent annealing is shown to produce similar photoluminescence from silicon to that previously observed from both plasma-etched and hydrogenated crystalline material.
Abstract: Room temperature proton implantation with subsequent annealing is shown to produce similar photoluminescence from silicon to that previously observed from both plasma-etched and hydrogenated crystalline material. The dominant radiative recombination channels in the near infrared are quite unusual. The interpretation of photoluminescence data on 1 × 10 14 − 1 × 10 17 (35 keV H+) cm−2 implants is supported by secondary ion mass spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy and deep level transient spectroscopy on selected samples.
TL;DR: In this article, differential phase contrast Lorentz microscopy was used for the determination of three-dimensional induction distributions and separation of contrast of magnetic and non-magnetic origin.
Abstract: The high resolution of the transmission electron microscope makes it an attractive tool for investigating both the micromagnetic and microstructural properties of modern magnetic materials. Following a brief summary of imaging modes in current use, the technique of differential phase contrast Lorentz microscopy is described and its advantages over other modes outlined. Problems relating to the determination of three-dimensional induction distributions and separation of contrast of magnetic and non-magnetic origin are addressed and some possible solutions suggested.
TL;DR: In this article, Raman scattering and IR absorption were studied in lithium-intercalated MoS 2 at room temperature, and new Raman peaks were observed on the low frequency sides of the high-frequency original Raman peak and around a rigid layer mode.
Abstract: Raman scattering and IR absorption were studied in lithium-intercalated MoS 2 at room temperature. After intercalation, new Raman peaks were observed on the low frequency sides of the high-frequency original Raman peaks and around a rigid layer mode. This fact indicates the formation of superlattice structure along the c axis. An intercalation mode in which lithium atoms vibrate strongly against the host lattice was observed at about 205 cm −1 . Two new broad bands grow in the high frequency region as the concentration of lithium increases. The corresponding bands were observed by IR absorption.
TL;DR: In this paper, the voltage-composition relation of lithium insertion in InSe, In 2 Se 3, MoS 2, TiS 2 and NiPS 3 was investigated.
Abstract: Results are presented for discharge processes of lithium electrochemical cells containing layered chalcogenide materials. Systematic and precise studies of the voltage-composition relation were made of lithium insertion in InSe, In 2 Se 3 , MoS 2 , TiS 2 and NiPS 3 . The stability of the intercalated phases is discussed on the basis of electrochemical potential spectroscopy measurements, and the inverse derivative composition-voltage is analysed using the lattice gas model. Using galvanostatic experiments, the chemical diffusion coefficient D(x) and the Darken factor K 1 (x) of the solid solution electrodes are determined.
TL;DR: A review of various phenomenological and microscopic approaches to ionic conductivity can be found in this paper, where the electrical properties of lithium conductive glasses (oxide and sulphide) are examined as an example.
Abstract: Ionic conductive glasses are used as electrolytes in electrochemical applications (batteries, sensors, etc.). After a brief definition of the nature of glass, this review covers the various phenomenological and microscopic approaches to ionic conductivity: Anderson-Stuart model; weak electrolyte theory; correlated movement of ions. The electrical properties of lithium conductive glasses (oxide and sulphide) are examined as an example.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the resonance Raman spectra of 2H-WS2 single crystals and demonstrated the activity of second-order Raman (SOR) processes due to coupling phonons with nonzero momentum.
Abstract: 2H-WS2 is an interesting simple layered material with an indirect-gap semiconducting behaviour; its lattice structure (P63/mmc) is well established and its band structure is well documented. However, the assignment and location in the Brillouin zone (at Γ, A, M or K) of two direct low energy transitions, characterized by A and B exciton peaks, are still open to discussion.
We have thus investigated in detail the resonance Raman spectra of 2H-WS2 single crystals and demonstrated the activity of second-order Raman (SOR) processes due to coupling phonons with non-zero momentum. In addition, we have determined by inelastic neutron scattering (INS) techniques the transverse acoustic (TA) and longitudinal acoustic (LA) dispersion curves in the (001), (100) and (110) directions: we conclude that the more intense SOR band is due to the 2 × LA (K) overtone, while other SOR peaks can be assigned to combinations of sum or difference bands involving phonons at the K point coupled to the LA (K) mode. Consequently, we have made use of all these data to fix some unknown parameters in complete valence force field lattice dynamics calculations which reproduce correctly the INS dispersion curves and lead to consistent values for the elastic constants (C11, C33, C44).
We thus definitively conclude, in agreement only with recent band-structure calculations, that the A and B excitons in 2H-WS2 correspond to the smallest gap at K and that the SOR scattering mechanisms are governed by the K3 ⇒ K5 (A) and K1 ⇒ K5 (B) electronic transitions.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a description of ARAMIS, the 2 MV high current implanter that they are building in their laboratory, with an emphasis on the original aspects of the machine.
Abstract: In this paper, we present a description of ARAMIS, the 2 MV high current implanter that we are building in our laboratory. The different parts of the machine are described with an emphasis on the original aspects of the machine. The present status of the construction is given.
TL;DR: In this article, Czochralski (CZ) silicon has been heated in a hydrogen plasma and the rates of production of thermal donors and the rate of loss of interstitial oxygen from solution are enhanced compared with conventional furnace anneals.
Abstract: Czochralski (CZ) silicon has been heated in a hydrogen plasma. The rates of production of thermal donors and the rate of loss of interstitial oxygen from solution are enhanced compared with conventional furnace anneals. Other gas plasmas produce somewhat smaller enhancements. There is no evidence for a large flux of point defects from the surface. Secondary ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) measurements show that hydrogen is not present in high concentrations throughout the bulk of the samples, but it could act as a catalyst to enhance the oxygen diffusion rate.
TL;DR: The new oxides Bi2Sr2(Ca1−xYx)Cu2O8+y have been prepared as discussed by the authors, which contains 8.65 oxygen atoms per formula and crystallizes in the orthorhombic symmetry with, as lattice parameters, a = 5.431 A, b = 5467 A and c = 30.22 A.
Abstract: The new oxides Bi2Sr2YCu2O8+y and Bi2Sr2(Ca1−xYx)Cu2O8+y have been prepared. The former compound contains 8.65 oxygen atoms per formula and crystallizes in the orthorhombic symmetry with, as lattice parameters, a = 5.431 A , b = 5.467 A and c = 30.22 A . After heating at 940°C in air, this oxide decomposes with Y2O3 and Bi2Sr2CuO6 as the main products. For 0⩽x⩽0.7, the Bi2Sr2(Ca1−xYx)Cu2O8+y solid solutions exhibit a superconducting transition. The critical temperature remains almost constant (85–90 K) for 0⩽x⩽0.30 and then decreases rapidly.
TL;DR: In this paper, a ternary phase with the nominal formula Ni3GaAs (designated as T in the present study) was established, and the structure of T was determined to be B81.5, the same as that of the high-temperature γ-Ni3Ga2 phase with one of the gallium atoms replaced by an arsenic atom.
Abstract: Solid state phase equilibria in the ternary GaNiAs system were established at 600°C. The experimental techniques used to establish the phase equilibria were X-ray powder diffraction, optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). A ternary phase with the nominal formula Ni3GaAs (designated as T in the present study) was established. T exists over a range of homogeneity. Most of the binary phases in this system show extensive ternary solubilities. There is a slight solubility of nickel in GaAs. The structure of T was determined to be B81.5, the same as that of the high-temperature γ-Ni3Ga2 phase with one of the gallium atoms replaced by an arsenic atom. The structural stabilities of γ-Ni3Ga2 (B81.5), γ′-Ni13Ga9 (monoclinic) and TNi3GaAs (B81.5) are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, a wet chemical synthesis route for the preparation of lanthanum oxysulfide precursors from metal alkoxides was reported, using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy to characterize the phase development and morphology of the as-prepared and transformed powders.
Abstract: Sulfide compounds are currently being developed as optical window materials for the visible and the 8–14 μm IR bands. While research in the development of ZnS and CaLa 2 S 4 materials has matured to an extent, the potential of cubic La 2 S 3 as an optical material for the far-IR window technology remains relatively unexplored. We report a wet chemical synthesis route for the preparation of lanthanum oxysulfide precursors from metal alkoxides. Using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy to characterize the phase development and morphology of the as-prepared and transformed powders, the oxysulfide precursor has been shown to transform into the cubic (γ) form of La 2 S 3 .
TL;DR: The use of megaelectronvolt implantations in silicon very-large-scale integration is increasing as the device dimensions are decreasing rapidly toward submicrometer geometries, and the number of components per chip are exceeding 106 as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The use of megaelectronvolt implantations in silicon very-large-scale integration is increasing as the device dimensions are decreasing rapidly toward submicrometer geometries, and the number of components per chip are exceeding 106. Several unique advantages are offered by megaelectronvolt implantations in process technology — in particular, the ability to dope and alter the profile deep below the surface, and the dramatic reduction in the thermal processing of very-large-scale integrated circuits. These features have led to several applications in complementary metal-oxide-semi-conductor and bipolar technologies and to their combination to give a merged technology called BICMOS. Despite the obvious advantages of megaelectronvolt implantations, their implementation in process technologies has not been as rapid as was the case for kiloelectronvolt implantations in the 1970s. Factors affecting this are masking, annealing of damage, profiles and modelling, and equipment issues. An up-to-date review of the physics and technologies of the above issues is presented in this paper. Also, conventional as well as some new applications are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the behavior of transition metals in silicon, with emphasis on the properties of the 3D transition metals which were investigated in more detail, was discussed. But the authors did not consider the 3d transition metal properties in terms of their properties as a function of the temperature.
Abstract: The paper reviews the behaviour of transition metals in silicon, with emphasis on the properties of the 3d transition metals which were investigated in more detail. After a short introduction concerning the sources of impurity contamination during device production and the deterioration of device performance, the chemical trends of the solubilities and diffusivities of the transition metals as a function of the temperature are discussed. The precipitation and the formation of haze are discussed together with a homogeneous or heterogeneous nucleation process of the respective transition metal. Recent results obtained by electron microscopy showed that the formation of epitaxial silicides is the predominant precipitation process. These results enable a better understanding of homogeneous nucleation. Getting of transition metals is discussed in the second part of the paper. In order to determine the efficiency of gettering processes, two methods are presented together with several applications of these techniques.