Showing papers in "Psychology & Marketing in 2000"

Social desirability bias: A neglected aspect of validity testing

Abstract: A tremendous growth in the use of multi-item scales in marketing research has occurred over the past two decades. Concurrently, there is increasing concern about the quality of these measures. Although the majority of marketing-related articles now discuss the reliability of the scales administered, few address the issue of scale validity. One aspect of scale validity, which should be of particular concern to marketing researchers, is the potential threat of contamination due to social-desirability response bias. However, a careful review of nearly 20 years of published research suggests that social-desirability bias has been consistently neglected in scale construction, evaluation, and implementation. The purpose of this article is to discuss the nature of such a bias, methods for identifying, testing for and/or preventing it, and how these methods can and should be implemented in consumer-related research. ©: 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Consumer concern, knowledge, belief, and attitude toward renewable energy: An application of the reasoned action theory

Abstract: As conventional energy resources dry up and pollution increases, utility companies and policy makers seek to develop new energy programs that are more environmentally sound and replenishable. Renewable energy has emerged as an alternative energy resource, but its marketing has not been successful despite widespread consumer concern about the environment. Using the theory of reasoned action as a theoretical framework, the current research investigates the relationship of three variables (concern with the environment, knowledge about renewable energy, and beliefs about salient consequences of using renewable energy) with consumer attitude toward paying a premium for renewable energy. As predicted by the theory of reasoned action, a positive relationship between beliefs about salient consequences and attitudes toward paying more for renewable energy was found. Overall concern levels were quite high for consumers in the sample, whereas knowledge levels were relatively low. Interestingly, it was found that consumer concern failed to translate into heightened knowledge about renewable energy. The study suggests that the consumer's environmental concern and beliefs about renewable energy to date are more emotionally charged than fact- or knowledge-based. Implications for marketing strategies and consumer education are provided. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Social-Desirability Bias and the Validity of Self-Reported Values

Abstract: Unlike prior research that treats social-desirability bias (SDB) as measure contamination, the present research asserts that significant associations between measures of SDB and value self-reports are evidence of measure validity. The degree to which value self-reports are influenced by SDB also reflects the relative importance of values within a culture. Values that are most important have the greatest self-presentational implications and therefore should be most affected by SDB. Moreover, differences between raw and SDB-corrected value self-reports indicate the extent to which values are personal (i.e., private) or public in nature. The research is based on two national samples of American adults 18 years of age and older. Implications for research on values are discussed. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Temptation and resistance: An integrated model of consumption impulse formation and enactment.

Abstract: Research pertaining to the consumption impulse is sparse in the literature. To address this lacuna, the author presents and validates a detailed theoretical framework explicating the consumption impulse formation process, and examining the role played by cognitive and volitional processes in its resistance or enactment. The model makes the distinction between consonant (harmonious) impulses and dissonant (conflicting) impulses and elaborates on the role of the impulsivity trait, situational variables, and constraining factors in enactment or resistance of the consumption impulse. The results of two studies provide support to the general working of this theoretical framework. This research has the potential to inform many critical issues surrounding consumer behavior, such as regulating consumption impulses in retail and on-line shopping environments, and developing interventions for prevention of harmful consumer behaviors such as addictions. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

I'll Have What She's Having: Gauging the Impact of Product Placements on Viewers

Abstract: Product placement in TV shows is becoming increasingly common, yet little is known about its effectiveness nor even how to define and measure such effectiveness. This research examined the effectiveness of product placement with the use of two different types of measures: explicit measures that tap memory directly (with the use of a recognition and recall task), and an implicit measure that measures the effect of exposure on product choice indirectly. It was hypothesized that the ability of product placement to enhance memory and choice may be mediated by distinct mechanisms. The results showed an overall enhancement in product recall, recognition, and choice due to placement. Further, although products central to the plot were remembered and recalled more than products placed more subtly, no reliable effect of centrality of placement was observed on the choice measure. This dissociation also occurred with modality of placement—where seen-only products most influenced choice but were least recalled. The present data conform to theories of memory, which predict that performance on explicit memory task can be dissociated or uncorrelated with performance on implicit performance or choice. This finding has significant implications for how product placements are designed and how their efficacy evaluated. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An empirical investigation of the relationship between product involvement and brand commitment

Abstract: Strong brand commitment has often been associated with high levels of involvement. However, empirical evidence supporting the conceptual distinctiveness of the two constructs has been equivocal. The findings of this study indicate that product involvement and brand commitment are not highly related and, indeed, represent unique constructs. Four distinct consumer segments emerged from the data analysis based upon low to high levels of product involvement and weak to strong brand commitment. Furthermore, various differences were revealed among the four groups with respect to product orientations, sources of brand information, and the importance of product attributes. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Effects of a product display and environmental fragrancing on approach responses and pleasurable experiences

Abstract: The effects of atmospherics (i.e., a product display, pleasant and [in] appropriate ambient fragrances) on approach responses toward a product (global attitude, purchase intention, estimated price, and price the customer is willing to pay) and pleasurable experiences (sensory, affective, and cognitive pleasure) were investigated. In addition, the mediating effects of sensory, affective, and cognitive pleasure on approach responses toward a product were examined. Statistical analysis of responses of 109 female subjects each randomly assigned to one of four treatments showed that the appropriately fragranced display generated the most positive effect on approach responses and pleasurable experiences. A component of cognitive pleasure (seeing oneself in a fantasy) and multisensory pleasure mediated two approach responses: attitude toward the product and purchase intention. Findings suggest the importance of combining a display with environmental fragrancing as a marketing tool, but careful selection and application of environmental fragrances are required. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Cognitive Dissonance after Purchase: A Multidimensional Scale.

Abstract: The concept of cognitive dissonance has been discussed widely in the consumer behavior literature, yet paradoxically, there is no well established scale to measure it. This article describes the development of a 22-item scale for assessing cognitive dissonance immediately after purchase. First, the article discusses the conceptualization of the construct, recognizing that dissonance is not only cognitive in nature, but also has an emotional component, consistent with Festinger’s early description of dissonance as a psychologically uncomfortable state. The procedures used to develop and refine the scale are subsequently described. This included a qualitative study to generate the items and two samples for each stage of the quantitative stages of scale refinement. Evidence of the scale’s sound psychometric properties, including its reliability, validity and factor structure is given. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Festinger (1957) described cognitive dissonance as a psychologically uncomfortable state that motivates a person to reduce that dissonance. Following Festinger’s early work, dissonance has been discussed in a

Applications of evolutionary psychology in marketing

Abstract: Evolutionary psychology is an emerging paradigm in psychological science. The current article introduces this framework to marketing scholars and presents evidence for its increasing acceptance within the social science community. As a result, a case is made for the application of evolutionary psychology to marketing, and especially consumer behavior. Application of the evolutionary framework in studying gender-related consumption behavior is illustrated by comparing the evolutionary predictions with results obtained from previous studies, by supporting these predictions with market-level consumption data, and by proposing new hypotheses based on this framework. Also discussed are the potential applications of evolutionary psychology to other consumption-related phenomena like evaluation of endorser attractiveness in advertising, biologically driven consumption choices among women, consumer-experienced emotions in service encounters, and consumption choices as inclusive fitness maximization rather than utility maximization. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The role of preconsumption affect in postpurchase evaluation of services

Abstract: The primary objective of this article is to examine the impact of preconsumption affect on consumers’ postpurchase evaluations. More specifically, we wanted to investigate how the two basic dimensions of affect — pleasure and arousal — contribute to customer evaluations of different types of services. To test our hypotheses, four service settings reflecting the quadrants in Russell’s Circumplex Model of Affect were chosen. Data were collected at two points of time: at the preprocess stage and immediately after the core service delivery. The results of this study suggest that pleasure and arousal, the two dimensions of emotional responses to the preprocess service environment, may interact in determining postpurchase evaluations. The interaction effect was observed for global satisfaction judgments and for repeat purchase behavior, thus suggesting that the combined effects of arousal and pleasure need to be considered in the design of preconsumption service settings. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Consumers' perceptions of promotional framing of price

Abstract: This article focuses on consumer perceptions of transaction value when presented with deals that are equivalent on a unit-cost basis but worded differently. Through an experimental design setting, it examines the effect of three such frames: one, stated in terms of a straight price promotion (“50% off”), the second, as an extra-product or volume promotion (“buy one, get one free”), and a third as a “mixed” promotion (“buy two, get 50% off”). Four typical supermarket categories are considered which permit the investigation of the effect of two category-based moderating factors: stock-up characteristic and price level. Results show that the nature of framing appears to differentially affect consumer perceptions of value from “equivalent” deals. Also, perceptions of deal value from price versus extra-product promotions are moderated by the stock-up characteristic of the category. However, consumers' internal reference prices remain unaffected across one-time price and extra-product promotions. These findings provide some understanding of the role of deal framing on consumers' responses, and offer implications for industry practitioners interested in communicating the maximum value in their deals. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Exploring the dimensions of ad creativity

Abstract: This study explored the influence of dimensions of creativity—novelty (expectancy), meaningfulness (relevancy), and emotion (valence of feelings)—on attitude toward the ad, attitude toward the brand, and purchase intention. The results indicate that unexpectedness enhanced ad effectiveness over expectedness when the ad has positive feelings. When the ad contains negative feelings, attitude toward the ad was diluted with unexpectedness vs. expectedness. Relevance was not critical in encouraging favorable responses when the ad is unexpected. With an unexpected–relevant–positive-feeling ad used as the baseline, a creative ad generated more favorable attitude toward the ad than other ad conditions. However, ad creativity resulted in more favorable brand attitude and purchase intention only against selected ad conditions. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed and directions for future research furnished. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Restricting gambling advertising and the third‐person effect

Abstract: Along with the rapid growth experienced by the gaming industry in the United States has come increasing calls to restrict or ban gambling advertising. To date, little is known about what motivates people to support such restrictions on advertising. However, one recent theory, the third-person effect, offers a possible explanation. The third-person effect states that when confronted with negative messages, people will overestimate the messages’ effect on others relative to themselves. Additionally, it suggests that it is this misperception that motivates them to take action against such messages. This study investigates whether a third-person effect occurs for gambling advertising and if this effect is related to procensorship attitudes for lotteries and casinos. The results suggest there is a sizable gap between perceptions of the effect of gambling advertising on one’s self versus others, and that the perceived effect on others is related to a willingness to restrict such advertising. 2000 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.

Discursive psychology: An alternative conceptual foundation to means–end chain theory

Abstract: This study investigates how means–end chain theory and laddering can be used to represent consumers' reasons for supporting or not supporting abstract marketing products such as ideas, goals, or perceptions. The specific empirical context used to illustrate the approach was the public's perceptions of President Clinton. Six hundred and three respondents in a national random sample of the public provided information on their stances toward the President and the bases for these stances. The declared reasons for supporting or not supporting the President were summarized in declarative maps and used to test hypotheses about their structure and their impact on attitudinal and behavioral variables. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

A psychometric evaluation of a revised version of the Lennox and Wolfe revised self-monitoring scale

Abstract: Self-monitoring has developed over the past decade or so to where it has become an important construct in both psychology and consumer behavior. Even though there is now a considerable literature largely in psychology, concern still remains at both a theoretical and measurement level about this construct. This article attempts to address some of the concerns raised in the literature about measuring self-monitoring. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to explore the robustness and fit of a revision of the Lennox and Wolfe (1984) revised self-monitoring scale and to test differences in variables across respondents' degree of self-monitoring. The findings from a data set of 450 respondents indicate a factor structure similar to that found in previous studies, but with improved reliability and fit to the data. The results were sufficiently strong to warrant continued use of this instrument. The results also indicate significant differences in key consumer behavior variables, consumer confidence, subjective knowledge and concern for image across self-monitoring. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Advertising and recruitment: Marketing to minorities

Abstract: Growing diversity, increasing multinationalism, and a need to better understand minority consumers make recruiting minority professionals to the workplace exceedingly important. This study examines the influences of a frequently used tool in organizational recruitment, the recruitment advertisement. Specifically, this research examines the influence of the racial composition of employees portrayed in these advertisements on a diverse sample of job-seeker reactions. These reactions include perceptions of organizational attractiveness, perceived compatibility to the organization, and evaluations of organizational image. In addition, it was expected that the race of the perceiver, the job seeker, would moderate these relationships. Mixed support for the hypotheses was found. Implications for advertising, marketing, and recruitment research given emerging domestic diversity are offered. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Clipping coupons in cyberspace: A proposed model of behavior for deal‐prone consumers

Abstract: The use of cents-off coupons by consumers is a widespread phenomenon and is well documented in the marketing literature. Recently, coupons have become available in electronic form on the World Wide Web. This article introduces an adaptation of the theory of planned behavior applied to coupon usage that encapsulates both traditional and electronic environments. A careful review of the couponing literature is presented, along with a proposed theoretical framework. A methodology for empirical verification is suggested and managerial implications are discussed, along with avenues for further research. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Out of the closet and out on the street!: Gay men and their brand relationships

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to report the findings of a study that explored the lived experience and consumer behaviors of 44 gay men. The specific focus is on the brand relationships considered community constructing. Participant observation and long interviews were both used extensively to attain this objective. Various literatures have not fully explored various forms of consumer behavior and their important interrelationships with community and resistance to the sexual status quo. This research illuminates the theoretical relationships between brand relationships in constructing gay community. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Socially desirable response sets: The impact of country culture.

Abstract: The present research explores differences in social-desirability response bias across cultures. Results indicate a significant difference in response bias between Western and Eastern subjects that may be attributed to differences in the dominant cultural dimensions of the subject's country of origin. Additional analysis reveals surprising results regarding the measurement-scale properties themselves. The unexpected findings raise concerns about the cross-cultural generalizability of the Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability scale. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

What if I find it cheaper someplace else?: Role of prefactual thinking and anticipated regret in consumer behavior

Abstract: Allen R. McConnell, Keith E. Niedermeier, Jill M. Leibold,Amani G. El-Alayli, Peggy P. Chin, and Nicole M. KuiperMichigan State UniversityABSTRACTPrevious research has focused primarily on affect generated fromcounterfactual thinking after decisions have heen made. The currentstudy, in contrast, examined how predecision mental simulations(prefactuals) and feelings of anticipated regret are affected hydifferent marketing strategies. A preliminary investigation foundthat consumers frequently produce upward prefactuals (e.g., if I huyit today and find it for less next week, I'll regret my purchase) whenconsidering a major purchase. It was hypothesized that providingprice guarantees would reduce upward prefactual generation andreduce anticipated regret. The primary investigation supportedthese predictions. When price guarantees were availahle, prefactualswere more downward in direction and negative affect was reduced.Also, price guarantees increased long-term satisfaction andhappiness even when they were not exercised. Implications formental simulation, marketing, and judgment and decision makingare discussed. ©2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.When attempting to influence behavior, one of the most straightforwardapproaches is to place positive behavior-relevant thoughts in the target

The influence of anticipated counterfactual regret on behavior.

Abstract: Three experiments tested the hypothesis that the anticipation of counterfactual regret influences decision making and behavior. This hypothesis was examined under conditions of uncertainty in which the behavioral alternatives were equally desirable (or undesirable) and there was no clear default alternative. In Experiment 1, participants read a scenario in which the salience of anticipated counterfactual regret associated with two behavioral options was manipulated. Their behavioral intentions demonstrated avoidance of the option associated with salient counterfactual regret. Experiment 2 examined behavior in a gaming situation in which participants chose whether or not to purchase insurance to protect their treasure. Participants who anticipated counterfactual regret made insurance purchase decisions in a way that minimized the chances of experiencing this regret. To rule out several alternative explanations for the results of the first two experiments, the content of the anticipated counterfactual and the salience of anticipated regret were orthogonally manipulated in a third experiment. As expected, the influence of the anticipated counterfactual on insurance-buying behavior was significantly stronger when the associated regret was salient than when it was not. These findings are discussed in terms of both their positive and negative implications for the self in decision-making contexts. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

People, Products, and Pursuits: Exploring the Relationship between Consumer Goals and Product Meanings

Abstract: Does a relationship exist between a consumer's goals and the meaning associated with a product? Two product meaning categories are considered—a functional meaning that highlights the attributes and benefits associated with the product, and a symbolic meaning that captures more intrinsic and abstract notions about the purchase. A dynamic goal structure is considered that consists of three distinct levels of motivation—the having level, the doing level, and the being level. This article explores the relationship between both sets of constructs by utilizing a depth-interview methodology to focus on informants' motivations, thoughts and feelings, and underlying meanings associated with purchases. The data offer preliminary support for four distinct linking constructs. These findings exhibit a first step toward understanding the simultaneous impact of motivation, product meaning, and consumption context on consumers' decision making. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The long good-bye: The dissolution of customer-service provider relationships

Abstract: Our research examines customer-service provider relationship dissolution. We conducted in-depth interviews with five women who recently took at least several months to terminate a service relationship. The data provide a holistic perspective on why consumers take a long time to exit, how they exit, and their expectations about rekindling their relationships. Based on our data, we conceptualize a model of the long exit, a process that includes a dissolution stage, an exit stage, and a post-dissolution stage. Our model offers a theoretical framework of service dissolution, as well as practical implications for service providers. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Please, let's get an answer—any answer: Need for consumer cognitive closure

Abstract: Conceptually, it is argued that individual differences in need for cognitive closure, which stem from Kruglanski's theory of lay epistemics, provides a framework for studying various aspects of consumer judgment and decision making. However, methodologically, the need for cognitive closure scale has not demonstrated good measurement properties and has generated controversy. To improve the measurement quality of the scale for individual differences in the need for cognitive closure, the authors carry out a large-scale data collection and measure validation exercise. To demonstrate the usefulness of this individual difference variable in a consumer context, the authors test hypotheses concerning consumer search behavior for cars and televisions. The results are encouraging and provide initial support for the utility of this framework in consumer judgment and decision making. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Market exit and barriers to exit: Theory and practice

Abstract: This article examines market exit, barriers to exit, modes and strategies of exit, reasons for exit, and the consequences of exit through a literature review of the academic literature and the popular press. There is very little empirical research in this area. The article attempts to analyze the applications of market exit and barriers to exit theories, and consequences of exit with recent examples taken from newspapers and popular business magazines. Despite the fact that there are strong barriers to exit, companies are sometimes forced to exit markets. Market-exit or product-elimination decisions influence employees, distributors, suppliers, and customers. This influence is usually negative and is in the form of cognitive dissonance. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The impact of social support on salesperson burnout and burnout components

Abstract: Previous research has shown that salesperson burnout affects sales productivity, employee retention, and job satisfaction. Although burnout has often been conceptualized as a multiple-component construct, research typically has approached the efficacy of burnout reduction techniques by using overall measures of burnout rather than by examining the effects of such techniques on individual burnout components. The present research investigates how social support and choice of coping strategy relate to burnout components, illustrating the need to consider such components when conducting burnout-related research. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

The year 2000: Looking forward

Abstract: Following up on their article in the last issue, the authors reflect and speculate upon the evolution of the discipline of marketing. In so doing, they make connections to key social and intellectual developments in the past that shape its current course and point to radical ends in view that could fundamentally change how marketers, consumers, and scholars may come to view themselves and the subject matter of marketing. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Complaining as planned behavior

Abstract: Two investigations of complaining were conducted within the framework of planned behavior theory. The intention to complain was associated with “confidence about complaining” and “standing up for one's rights” as well as with the prospect of getting a refund or replacement product. These findings indicate that complaining may be assisted when firms, in addition to providing redress, make sure that the expression of complaint is an easy, accepted, and predictable part of buyer–seller interaction. The theory of planned behavior was not well supported. Model fits were moderate and there were anomalous associations between belief products and global variables. The investigations used scenarios and, in one condition, the scenario appeared to produce a strong and unexpected shift in responses that could have occurred as a result of priming. This effect raises some doubt about the reliability of scenario methods. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Illustrating a dynamic model of the mood‐updating process in consumer behavior

Abstract: Previous research has examined mood as an antecedent of various consumption-related outcomes and has explored how consumers react to their moods via attempts at self-regulated consumption-based mood management. However, little attention has addressed mood as an affective outcome that reflects the dynamic unfolding of consumer experiences over time. The present study explores the latter issue and proposes a model of the mood-updating process wherein future mood depends on past mood as altered by evaluative judgments that are, in turn, influenced by consumption experiences, by predispositions, and by the previous mood itself. An empirical example illustrates this mood-updating model in the case of listening to music. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Contributions from mood research

Abstract: In this article definitions of mood and the behavioral effects of negative moods are reviewed and scrutinized. This is an important task for two reasons. First, in prior studies, consumer researchers have treated concepts such as affect, mood, feeling, and emotion vaguely and arbitrarily. This has resulted in confusion regarding the substance of mood. In an attempt to dispel a part of this confusion, this article offers a conceptual analysis of mood. Second, a large part of prior consumer behavior- and advertising-related mood research has addressed the relation between mood and mental constructs. The relation between mood and actual consumer behaviors is a more neglected research area. The behavioral effects of negative moods are an especially interesting phenomenon, because past studies have produced mixed and contradictory results. Thus, to offer novel insights, the key conclusion of the conceptual analysis of mood is harnessed to explain the inconsistent findings regarding the negative mood–(consumer) behavior relation. Another theoretical contribution is the provision of starting points for conceptualizing mood-alleviative consumer behavior. Suggestions for future research are also briefly outlined in the concluding section of this article. © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.