Showing papers in "Social Behavior and Personality in 1988"
TL;DR: In this paper, a meta-analysis was employed to determine the existence of the detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation, and it was shown that within strictly defined parameters the phenomenon defined by Deci exists.
Abstract: Rewards have been shown to impair performance of a reinforced behavior. The work surrounding these detrimental effects of rewards has not been met with unanimous support. Does this phenomenon described in Deci’s cognitive evaluation theory concerning the detrimental effects of reward exist? Is Deci’s cognitive evaluation theory adequate to explain this phenomenon? A meta-analysis was employed to determine the existence of the detrimental effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Results from this analysis showed that within strictly defined parameters the phenomenon defined by Deci exists. Implications from this analysis exemplify researchers’ need for closer supervision of the operationalization of variables based on the theoretical framework.
194 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the interactive effects of the physical attractiveness of hypothetical defendants and mock jurors on judicial decisions were investigated, and the results showed that more as opposed to less attractive defendants were convicted less, punished less severely, rated as less responsible for the charges being brought, and considered more happy, likeable, and trustworthy.
Abstract: We investigated the interactive effects of the physical attractiveness of hypothetical defendants and mock jurors on judicial decisions. Seventy-eight college students rated their own physical attractiveness and then evaluated attractive, moderately attractive, and unattractive defendants as to the defendants’ guilt or innocence, responsibility for the charges being brought, trustworthiness, happiness, honesty, intelligence, and likeability as well as recommended punishment for those convicted. As expected, more as opposed to less attractive defendants were convicted less, punished less severely, rated as less responsible for the charges being brought, and considered more happy, likeable, and trustworthy. Attractive participants were more likely to convict than acquit unattractive defendants, while less attractive participants did not differentially convict or acquit defendants across all levels of defendant physical attractiveness. Both attractive and less attractive participants recommended the least severe punishment for attractive defend-ants; however, attractive participants were harshest on unattractive defendants, while unattractive participants were harshest on moderately attractive defendants. The results are discussed in terms of leniency effects when judging others with similar attributes.
67 citations
TL;DR: A total of 3,228 11- to 16-year-olds completed the Francis Scale of Attitude towards Christianity and the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: A total of 3,228 11- to 16-year olds completed the Francis Scale of Attitude towards Christianity and the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire. The positive relationship between religiosity and lie scale scores was examined in light of the 3 theories that religious people are less mature, more socially conforming, or simply bigger liars.
34 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors integrate theoretical and methodological perspective involved with research in social cognition with literature from the clothing and human behavior area, and find that theory and research from cognitive psychology serve as a suitable and relevant framework for the study of clothing.
Abstract: In this paper we integrate theoretical and methodological perspective involved with research in social cognition with literature from the clothing and human behavior area. We found that theory and research from cognitive psychology serve as a suitable and relevant framework for the study of clothing and human behavior. Recommendations to researchers with regards to the effective integration of these two areas were then made.
32 citations
TL;DR: The authors used a modified version of Rusbult and Farrell's commitment questionnaire to predict final grades in a university setting and found that adjusted R 2 values of.38 and.40 were obtained with the first two criteria.
Abstract: The predictors of academic success usually include aptitude and previous achievement measures. In the present study we used a modified version of Rusbult and Farrell’s (1983) commitment questionnaire to predict final grades in a university setting. As part of a larger study on the relationship between attitudes and study behaviors, 39 students completed the 5 parts of the Rusbult and Farrell questionnaire. Responses were then correlated with 3 dependent measures: a final course grade in calculus, grade point average (GPA), and the grade in a humanities course. Results showed that adjusted R 2 values of .38 and .40 were obtained with the first 2 criteria. The implications of using affective variables for predicting academic achievement are discussed.
29 citations
TL;DR: In this article, students at a large West German city university were presented with the UCLA Loneliness Scale (a 20-item questionnaire; Russell, Peplau & Cutona, 1980), with the Freiburg Personality Inventory (FPI; Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hempel, 1978; a personality assessment instrument widely used in German-speaking countries), and with various other questions.
Abstract: Students at a large West German city university were presented with the UCLA Loneliness Scale (a 20-item questionnaire; Russell, Peplau, & Cutona, 1980), with the Freiburg Personality Inventory (FPI; Fahrenberg, Selg, & Hempel, 1978; a personality assessment instrument widely used in German-speaking countries), and with various other questions. Loneliness was found to be correlated with several of the personality subscales of the FPI. As in our prior research, a negative correlation was found with self-rated physical attractiveness. Participants giving internal and stable attributions of any loneliness they experienced had higher loneliness scores than did participants giving different attributions. Also, some relationships with social environmental variables were found. A subsample of students being clients at the University Psychological Advisory Service were also investigated. Our results by and large corroborate the findings from prior loneliness research with US samples.
25 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, high Machs obtained significantly higher psychopathy scores than low Machs, and Mach V totals for primary psychopaths were significantly greater than those of secondary psychopaths.
Abstract: Previous researchers have not demonstrated the hypothesized link between machiavellianism (interpersonally manipulative behavior) and psychopathy. In this research, high Machs obtained significantly higher psychopathy scores than low Machs, and Mach V totals for primary psychopaths were significantly greater than those of secondary psychopaths. Both experiments suggest a relationship between Machiavellianism and primary psychopathy.
20 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effectiveness of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) and an adaptation of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) to differentiate between aggressive and nonaggressive inner city Black adolescent males was tested.
Abstract: We tested the effectiveness of the Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS) and an adaptation of the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory (BDHI) to differentiate between aggressive and nonaggressive inner city Black adolescent males. The CTS provided measures of conflict-resolution behavior toward “others” except siblings and parents; the adapted version of the BDHI provided measures of aggression toward friends and strangers. The sample comprised 83 males, ranging in age from 12 to 17 ( M = 13.9 years), who were classified as institutionalized aggressive, noninstitutionalized aggressive, and noninstitutionalized nonaggressive on the basis of their behavior before the CTS and adapted version of the BDHI were administered. The results indicated that the adapted version of the BDHI discriminated between aggressive and nonaggressive individuals as well as institutionalized and noninstitutionalized individuals. The verbal physical aggression scales of the CTS were found to differentiate between the institutionalized aggressive and noninstitutionalized nonaggressive participants. Positive correlations were obtained between the CTS and subscales of the adapted version of the BDHI. The scales may be useful for assessing aggression and conflict-resolution behavior among inner-city Black adolescent males.
19 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of a closed (versus an open) physical office environment on worker attitude, perception, and interpersonal relationships were investigated, and the results suggest that the use of modular furniture systems may provide physical comfort and still maintain an interactive climate for workers in an office setting.
Abstract: We aimed to determine the effects of a closed (versus an open) physical office environment on worker attitude, perception, and interpersonal relationships. A closed environment provides for privacy but isolates employees; while, an increased interruptions. The results suggest that the use of modular furniture systems may provide physical comfort (privacy) and still maintain an interactive climate for workers in an office setting.
15 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that participants in a dating interaction will report greater satisfaction when the exchange is perceived to follow traditional sex-typed norms than when they perceived themselves disclosing more personal information relative to their date.
Abstract: Using a diary technique, sex differences in persons’ perceptions of self and other-disclosure were examined. It was hypothesized that satisfaction in dating relationships is associated not with strict reciprocity in personal exchanges, but with the relative amount of disclosure perceived to be exchanged between the partners. Specifically, couples in a dating interaction will report greater satisfaction when the exchange is perceived to follow traditional sex-typed norms. Fifty-five participants monitored their own dating interactions over a 2-week period. Results indicated that males reported less interaction satisfaction if, relative to their date, they perceived themselves disclosing more personal information. The reverse tended to be true for females.
13 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, four modes of behavior considered contrary to expectations and all associated with rules and norms of competition were investigated within the context of psychological crisis and the Bayesian likelihood ratio (diagnosticity) was applied for assessing each behavior mode.
Abstract: Four modes of behavior considered contrary to expectations and all associated with rules and norms of competition were investigated in this study within the context of psychological crisis. These behaviors were against the rules of the competitive situation and were either (a) fair or unfair, and (b) called or not called by the officials. Twenty-eight basketball experts responded to a “rule- and norm-related behavior” questionnaire and were asked to assess the crisis relevance of the 4 behavioral modes. The Bayesian likelihood ratio (diagnosticity) was applied for assessing each behavior mode. Results revealed that officials’ calls and fairness of violations substantially influence the diagnostic relevance of behaviors contrary to expectations with regard to competitive psychological crisis. Theoretical and practical aspects are discussed.
TL;DR: This article found that the majority of Filipinos consider their family, friends, and school to be important parts of their lives, and these are aspects of the self tapped by typical Western self-esteem instruments, but they also tended to rate as important as food, money, and clothes.
Abstract: Results gained in this exploratory study with 100 Filipino children from a deprived cross-cultural background indicate that the majority consider that their family, friends, and school to be important parts of their lives. These are aspects of the self tapped by typical Western self-esteem instruments. However, they also tended to rate as important as food, money, and clothes – things ignored by most Western instruments. As these were the areas of life which they were most likely to feel bad about, such instruments may tend to overestimate their self-esteem.
TL;DR: In this article, the correlations between life events, state anxiety, trait anxiety, and voice stress were measured in 32 males and 32 females and the implications of these findings for a model of the human stress paradigm were discussed.
Abstract: Two studies of the relationships between environmental events, personal style variables, and reaction states were described. In study 1 the correlations between life events, state anxiety, trait anxiety, and voice stress were measured in 32 males and 32 females. For males there was a significant correlation between life stress scores and state anxiety. For females there was a significant correlation between voice stress scores and state anxiety. The implications of these findings for a model of the human stress paradigm were discussed, and improvements in measures were proposed. A second study employed improved measures of life events and voice stress and adding the variables of Type A/ B personal style and depression was done with 24 females and 21 males. More than a dozen significant correlations were found and discussed. Regression analyses indicated that the best predictor of voice stress was negative life events. The best predictor of depression was trait anxiety with gender adding significantly to the prediction equation. The best predictor of state anxiety was negative life events with trait anxiety adding significantly to the equation. The implications of these findings were discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a new measure of perceived parental control, named the Autonomy-Control Scale (ACS), and examined its psychometric properties and correlations with selected personality measures.
Abstract: I developed a new measure of perceived parental control, named the Autonomy-Control Scale (ACS), and examined its psychometric properties and correlations with selected personality measures. The results suggest that the ACS is a reliable instrument that is useful for quantifying perceived parental control.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors elucidate the process-social structure controversy concerning the relationships of self to symbolic interactionism, and expound dimensions of the symbolic interactionist perspective required for logically specifying and analyzing those psychological, social, and situational conditions under which social structure and social process each exert their differential influences in determining consequences that self has for social behavior.
Abstract: The purpose in this paper was to elucidate the process-social structure controversy, concerning the relationships of self to symbolic interactionism. Increasingly, knowledgeable scholars of self theory are gaining methodological insights, which support the fact that our conceptions of process and social structure are each incomplete, supplementary dimensions articulating the same phenomenal states of being and development. Just as self and society are “twin born”; structure and process are analytically separable dimensions of self that, however, are not mutually reducible. Hence, the basic problem, attempted herein, is to expound dimensions of the symbolic interactionist perspective required for logically specifying and analyzing those psychological, social, and situational conditions under which social structure and social process each exert their differential – as well as their combined, simultaneous influences in determining consequences that self has for social behavior.
TL;DR: It was shown that the negative schizophrenic symptoms of social dysfunction and emotional instability as measured by the Minnesota Counselling Inventory are positively and significantly correlated with positive schizotypal symptomology as measures by the RISC.
Abstract: The validation of questionnaires intended to identify the position of a person along a normal/schizotypal/ schizophrenic continuum has always been problematic. Schizophrenic patients are not good at completing questionnaire, and validation has to depend on the identification of “at risk” groups. Watt, Grubb, and Elenmeyer-Kimling (1982) found that the adolescent offspring of schizophrenics show the negative schizophrenic symptomology of interpersonal disharmony and emotional instability. In the study reported here, using a sample of 174 adolescents of both sexes, we consider the validity of the Rust Inventory of Schizotypal Cognitions (RISC), a psychometric questionnaire for the positive cognitive symptoms of the schizotypal personality. It was shown that the negative schizophrenic symptoms of social dysfunction and emotional instability as measured by the Minnesota Counselling Inventory are positively and significantly correlated with positive schizotypal symptomology as measured by the RISC.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated whether men and women differ in the extent to which they are altruistically other-oriented in their intimate heterosexual relationships and sources of this orientation, and found that men are more altruistic otheroriented toward their partners than are women when the effects of dependency, gender role traditionalism, and relationship seriousness are considered.
Abstract: In this study it was investigated whether men and women differ in the extent to which they are altruistically other-oriented in their intimate heterosexual relationships, and sources of this orientation. Data from married and nonmarried college students suggest that men are more altruistically other-oriented toward their partners than are women. However, when the effects of dependency, gender role traditionalism, and relationship seriousness are considered, gender has no direct effect on altruistic other-orientation. Instead, greater dependency, gender role traditionalism, and relation-ship seriousness encourage individuals to be more altruistic toward their intimate partners.
TL;DR: The authors found that sadness was caused by harm in the majority of incidents and a shift with age in the nature of the harmful causes of sadness, toward a greater frequency of harm to others as opposed to harm to self, as well as a higher frequency of psychological versus physical harm.
Abstract: We asked 96 children from first, third, fifth, and seventh grades to describe situations in which they were sad, and posed questions to assess the related causes, intensity, motives, and consequences. Results showed that sadness was caused by harm in the majority of incidents. There was a shift with age in the nature of the harmful causes of sadness, toward a greater frequency of harm to others as opposed to harm to self, as well as a greater frequency of psychological versus physical harm. Harm to pets, isolation, and prevention of goal achievement by another were causes of sadness and the latter decreased with age. Kindergarten children reported a lower intensity of sadness than did older children. As age increased, so did children’s identification of motives for sadness. The most and least frequent of consequences of children’s sadness were passive nonexpression and verbal expression of feelings, respectively. Finally, there was a decrease with age in children’s redirective behavior (quick shifts towards happy activities) as a consequence of sadness.
TL;DR: This paper used a series of regression tests suggested by Kerlinger and Pedhazur in another context to compare the two situations statistically without the use of inferential statistics, and several advantages are suggested.
Abstract: Often researchers are required to examine a specific model under 2 different situations. In several studies cited here, authors compared results descriptively without the use of inferential statistics. By using a series of regression tests suggested by Kerlinger and Pedhazur in another context, the 2 situations can be compared statistically. An example from a recent study is used to illustrate the technique and several advantages are suggested.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared emotional comparison theory with utility theory in an analysis of effects of stress on affiliation in a laboratory setting and found that the former theory argues that par-ticipants tend to affiliate with others at a similar level of fear since this permits satisfaction of the emotional comparison need Utility theory suggests that affiliation tendency should decrease when this is likely to increase feelings of embarrassment and negative emotional contagion.
Abstract: Emotional comparison theory was contrasted with utility theory (Rote, 1984) in an analysis of effects of stress on affiliation in a laboratory setting The former theory argues that par-ticipants tend to affiliate with others at a similar level of fear since this permits satisfaction of the emotional comparison need Utility theory, however, suggests that affiliation tendency should decrease when this is likely to increase feelings of embarrassment and negative emotional contagion In an attempt to examine this hypothesis, 3 experimental manipulations were designed The first situation was a replication of the main features of Schachter’s study, while the second and third were intended to decrease the utility value of affiliation, and, at the same time to maintain or even increase the opportunity for social comparison In these 2 new experimental conditions participants were told that the shocks would be given immediately rather than deferred In the third condition participants were also told that their physiological reactions would be projected on a screen, so that they could be publicly compared with others Consistent with the utility theory, results showed that these 2 latter fear conditions resulted in a marked decrease in the affiliation tendency for males but not females
TL;DR: The effects on males of observing fictional aggression were assessed in a between-subjects design as discussed by the authors, where participants were randomly assigned to view either a film clip of professional women wrestlers, a mud wrestling segment, or a no-film control condition.
Abstract: The effects on males ( N = 60) of observing fictional aggression were assessed in a between-subjects design. Participants were randomly assigned to view either a film clip of professional women wrestlers, a mud wrestling segment, or a no-film control condition. Both films produced negative changes in mood states, principally an increase in aggression and a decrease in social affection. Exposure to the films failed to produce changes in men’s acceptance of interpersonal violence against women, rape myth beliefs, or sexual callousness.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the relationship between locus of control and attitude to food intake and found that locus-of-control was unable to predict attitudes towards eating and fear of becoming overweight.
Abstract: In this study we investigated the relationship between locus of control and attitude to food intake. One hundred and one females ( M age = 21.3) were administered the I-E Scale, Eating Attitudes Test, and Goldfarb Fear of Fat Scale. Results indicated that locus of control was unable to predict attitudes towards eating and fear of becoming overweight. The hypothesis that locus of control would be related to attitude towards food intake was not supported. Possible explanations, areas of future research, and implications in the etiology of anorexia nervosa are discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, behavior commitment and negative task discrepancy were manipulated in a 2 × 2 between-groups factorial design in order to observe their effects on attitudinal persistence on feminist issues and perceived threat of a trivia test score.
Abstract: Behavioral commitment and negative task discrepancy were manipulated in a 2 × 2 between-groups factorial design in order to observe their effects on attitudinal persistence on feminist issues and perceived threat of a trivia test score. Results indicated that non-active feminists perceived a greater threat from a discrepant test score than active feminists. Non-active feminists also showed greater agreement to a feminist point of view than active feminists as a result of experiencing discrepancy on a self-relevant task.
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that those who were classified as Type A exhibited significantly greater status concern, less alexithymia, more misanthropy, and greater life satisfaction than those who are classified as B. Self-esteem and related self-concepts did not differ significantly between these two groups.
Abstract: Over 700 college students completed the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) along with 11 other personality scales in an attempt to identify the personality correlates of this scale. These 11 personality variables were analyzed to determine their contribution to a discriminant solution between extreme high scores (supposedly true Type As) and low scores (supposedly true Type Bs) as measured by the JAS. The results revealed that relative to those participants who were classified as Type Bs, those classified as Type As exhibited significantly greater status concern, less alexithymia, more misanthropy, and greater life satisfaction. Self-esteem and related self-concepts did not differ significantly between these two groups. These findings challenge the validity of this instrument as a measure of Type A trait.
TL;DR: This article conducted a study of 5,475 American Catholic priests and found that those who conformed to church regulations regarding dress differed from nonconformists in their beliefs about their roles as priests and in their opinions of church reform, commitment to the priesthood, feelings of anomie, rank within the priesthood and age.
Abstract: In this study we proceeded from the general theoretical position that dress is a significant element in role enactment and addressed the specific question of why there is apparent conflict regarding what form of dress is appropriate to enactment of the role of the Roman Catholic priest. Data analyzed were drawn from a study of 5,475 American Catholic priests. Priests who conformed to church regulations regarding dress differed from nonconformists in their beliefs about their roles as priests and in their opinions of church reform, commitment to the priesthood, feelings of anomie, rank within the priesthood, and age.
TL;DR: The authors investigated gender differences among first year medical students' attitudes towards a discussion-oriented behavioral science course, performance on an end-of-course essay, and locus of control, and found that female medical students generally evaluated the course more favorably than their male counterparts, and scored higher on the Rotter I-E scale (i.e., were more external).
Abstract: We investigated gender differences among first year medical students’ attitudes towards a discussion-oriented behavioral science course, performance on an end of course essay, and locus of control. Female medical students generally evaluated the course more favorably than their male counterparts, and scored higher on the Rotter I-E scale (i.e., were more external). There were no gender differences in essay grades. Implications of the findings are discussed and future research directions are suggested.
TL;DR: The authors conducted three studies to investigate some of the characteristics of emotion words and found that basic words were hypothesized to be broader in reference, less informative, and superordinate to more specific terms in the same set.
Abstract: We conducted 3 studies to investigate some of the characteristics of emotion words. Five sets of 3 emotion words were selected; each set contained 1 basic word appearing early in the developing lexicon and 2 more specific words from the same broad category of emotion appearing later in development. Basic words were hypothesized to be broader in reference, less informative, and superordinate to more specific terms in the same set (examined in Studies 1–3). Undergraduates ( N s = 36, 60, and 60, respectively) made choices on each of the 10 pairs of predictor words and on 30 comparison pairs. Results supported the hypotheses for the experimental pairs. However, the finding that similar relationships appeared between many pairs of terms for which there were no theoretical expectations casts some doubt on the interpretation.
TL;DR: The authors found that actor-observer differences in descriptions of behavior do not necessarily reflect differences in causal perceptions, which may be due to the size and complexity of one's cognitive schemata about the person being described.
Abstract: Although much of the support for the actor-observer causal attribution hypothesis comes from behavior description studies, the difference between behavior description and causal attribution has been neglected in actor-observer research. Behavior descriptions (e.g., trait ratings) are affected by the size and complexity of one’s cognitive schemata about the person being described, which may be unrelated to causal attributions. To test this possibility, pairs of participants engaged in a brief conversation and then made either trait ratings or causal attributions about their own or the other person’s behavior. Although observers made more extreme trait ratings than did actors (supporting the schema complexity notion), observers also made stronger external causal attributions than did actors (contradicting the actor-observer hypothesis). It is concluded that actor-observer differences in descriptions of behavior do not necessarily reflect differences in causal perceptions.
TL;DR: The integrative complexity and logical consistency of personal constructs were examined in groups of children with mean ages of 8.5, 13.1, and 16.1 years.
Abstract: The integrative complexity and logical consistency of personal constructs were examined in groups of children with mean ages of 8.5, 13.1, and 16.1 years. Consistent with Piaget’s theory, the 13- and 16-year-olds were similar and demonstrated greater integrative complexity and logical consistency than the 8-year-olds did. Our results support the predicted relationships among formal operations, integrative complexity, and logical consistency.
TL;DR: The Bem Sex-Role Inventory as mentioned in this paper was administered to a total of 408 students and 393 teachers who were randomly selected from 7 Caribbean States and found that males were more rigidly sex-typed than females.
Abstract: The Bem Sex-role Inventory was administered to a total of 408 students and 393 teachers who were randomly selected from 7 Caribbean States. Analyses indicated marked differentiation of males (both teachers and students) and females (both teachers and students) in sex-role orientation. Comparisons between students and teachers on both the masculinity and femininity dimensions showed the students to be more rigidly sex-typed.