Showing papers in "The International Journal of Aviation Psychology in 1998"

It is not how much you have but how you use it: toward a rational use of simulation to support aviation training.

Abstract: One of the most remarkable changes in aviation training over the past few decades is the use of simulation. The capabilities now offered by simulation have created unlimited opportunities for aviation training. In fact, aviation training is now more realistic, safe, cost-effective, and flexible than ever before. However, we believe that a number of misconceptions--or invalid assumptions--exist in the simulation community that prevent us from fully exploiting and utilizing recent scientific advances in a number of related fields in order to further enhance aviation training. These assumptions relate to the overreliance on high-fidelity simulation and to the misuse of simulation to enhance learning of complex skills. The purpose of this article is to discuss these assumptions in the hope of initiating a dialogue between behavioral scientists and engineers.

Automation bias: decision making and performance in high-tech cockpits

Abstract: Automated aids and decision support tools are rapidly becoming indispensable tools in high-technology cockpits and are assuming increasing control of "cognitive" flight tasks, such as calculating fuel-efficient routes, navigating, or detecting and diagnosing system malfunctions and abnormalities. This study was designed to investigate automation bias, a recently documented factor in the use of automated aids and decision support systems. The term refers to omission and commission errors resulting from the use of automated cues as a heuristic replacement for vigilant information seeking and processing. Glass-cockpit pilots flew flight scenarios involving automation events or opportunities for automation-related omission and commission errors. Although experimentally manipulated accountability demands did not significantly impact performance, post hoc analyses revealed that those pilots who reported an internalized perception of "accountability" for their performance and strategies of interaction with the a...

Event-based approach to training (EBAT).

Abstract: The importance of providing real-world experience through virtual environments is well accepted, and this mode of training is used extensively in aviation. It is, therefore, surprising that there are few general methods that guide the design of simulation-based training. The lack of such methods is problematic. Due to recent factors in the aviation industry, such as advances in technology, individuals must now possess a range of skills, increasingly cognitive in nature, that must be trained and evaluated through hands-on experience. Second, training is broadening from an almost exclusive focus on individuals and teams to include multiple crews. It is clear that exercise design methodologies are needed. The purpose of this article is to describe a general approach to the design of simulation-based exercises referred to as the Event-Based Approach to Training (EBAT). Event-based techniques guide the design of training opportunities by systematically identifying and introducing events within training exercis...

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Flight Simulators for Training Combat Skills: A Review

Abstract: The military is focusing a great deal of effort on developing virtual world technologies that will allow training combat skills in flight simulators. Considerably less attention is being directed toward documenting the effectiveness of such training. In this article, we review Air Force and Navy efforts to evaluate the effectiveness of training the combat skills necessary for attack and fighter aircraft in flight simulators. The majority of these efforts indicate that simulation can be a valuable complement to the aircraft. Unfortunately, this conclusion is based primarily on opinion data from experienced aviators. There are very few transfer of training experiments, and those experiments have examined only a limited set of combat tasks. We also describe the typical paradigms used to conduct training evaluations and outline a multistep evaluation program for determining training effectiveness.

Elevation-dependent symptom, mood, and performance changes produced by exposure to hypobaric hypoxia.

Abstract: Altitude exposures above 3,000 m produce changes in symptoms, moods, and cognitive/motor performance of unacclimatized individuals and should produce graded effects on these parameters as elevation and duration are increased. This study examined effects on these parameters as a function of altitude level and duration of exposure by administering standardized tests from 1 to 3 times to 23 males in an altitude chamber during 4.5-hour exposures to 3 levels of hypobaric hypoxia: 500 m, 4,200 m, and 4,700 m. Exposure to altitude significantly affected symptoms, moods, and performance in an elevation-dependent fashion. Adverse changes increased with higher altitudes (all measures were affected at 4,700 m, whereas only some were at 4,200 m) and usually with longer durations. Therefore, specific aspects of symptoms, moods, and performance are significantly degraded after only a few hours of exposure to hypobaric hypoxia, and the severity of the effects dramatically increases when testing is conducted at 4,700 m compared to 4,200 m.

Head-up displays: effects of clutter, display intensity, and display location on pilot performance.

Abstract: Two experiments examined the effects of display location (head-up and head-down), display clutter, and display intensity on pilot performance in a general aviation-cruise flight environment. In Experiment 1, a low-fidelity simulation revealed that the detection of commanded flight changes and flight-path tracking performance was better in the head-down condition as compared to the head-up condition. In contrast, midair traffic detection was superior with the head-up display (HUD), reflecting an attentional trade-off. Experiment 2 used the same paradigm in a high-fidelity visual simulation. Flight performance was equivalent between HUD and head-down locations. Detection of commanded changes and traffic was better in the HUD condition, revealing the HUD benefits of reduced scanning. The presence of clutter inhibited detection of command changes and traffic in both head-up and head-down conditions. Lowlighting the task-irrelevant clutter did not facilitate detection of commanded changes, however, the clutter cost for detecting traffic was diminished if the added information was lowlighted in the head-down location. The data suggested that attention was modulated between tasks (flight control and detection), and between display areas (head-up and head-down).

Evidence for the Validity of PC-based Simulations in Studying Aircrew Coordination

Abstract: Recently, advances in computer technology have allowed the use of PC-based simulations for a variety of aviation training and research purposes. One area in particular where PC-based simulations have been used extensively is the study of aircrew coordination. Yet, there have always been lingering questions about the validity of these simulations. Critics have argued that most PC-based simulations are derived from video games and that gaming cannot substitute for actual work tasks. Also, the low physical fidelity of these devices has been cited as a potential threat to validity. By reviewing a number of aircrew studies conducted over the past 10 years and by presenting new experimental results, this article provides evidence for the validity of using PC-based simulations. Additionally, this article provides a set of guidelines that can be used by practitioners to increase the validity of their simulations.

Cognitive Evaluation of Human-Human and Human-Machine Cooperation Modes in Air Traffic Control

Abstract: An experiment is described that aimed at evaluating a principle of dynamic task allocation (DTA) of conflict resolution between aircraft in air-traffic control on a large scale simulator. It included three cognitive agents: the radar controller (RC), in charge of conflict detection and resolution; the planning controller (PC), in charge of entry-exit coordination and of workload regulation; and a conflict resolution computer system (SAINTEX), able to manage only simple conflicts. Within this three-agent paradigm, three conditions were compared: (a) a control condition (without computer assistance); (b) an explicit condition (PC and RC in charge of the allocation); and (c) an assisted explicit condition (SAINTEX proposed allocations which could be changed by PC). Comparisons were made on the basis of a detailed cognitive analysis of verbal protocols. The more the assistance, the more anticipative the mode of operation in controllers and the easier the human-human cooperation (HHC). These positive effects o...

Personal Computer-Based Flight Training Devices

Abstract: This article reviews the role of personal computer aviation training devices (PCATDs) in general aviation pilot training. A brief history of flight simulator development is provided, accompanied by a sampling of early research on the effectiveness of simulator training. PCATDs are described along with their more common interface devices. Next, an examination of the use of PC-based flight simulators in formal and informal flight training programs reveals some of the recent data validating their use. Special emphasis is paid to the use of PC-based flight simulators for the instruction of novices in how to fly and the training of pilots in the performance of instrument flight maneuvers. Then, the role fidelity plays in producing transfer from PC-based training devices is addressed. Finally, a case is made for researchers to provide the kind of data that regulatory agencies should use in determining the standards for certification of PCATDs in flight training programs. Finally, suggestions are made for improv...

Computer-Based Simulation as an Adjunct to Ab Initio Flight Training

Abstract: Two groups of ab initio student pilots were given training on a flight simulation package running on a desk-top computer prior to performing some basic flight maneuvers in the air. One group interacted with the computer using a representative set of flight controls. The other group used only the computer's cursor and function keys. Both groups exhibited superior performance compared to a control group who had no computer-based training. Students with prior training who used representative flight controls also experienced lower in-flight workload. The results suggest that PC-based flight simulators do not aid in the psychomotor skills required to fly a light aircraft. Their benefits lie elsewhere. However, even very low levels of simulator fidelity can be beneficial in the initial stages of pilot training.

Simulator Platform Motion—The Need Revisited

Abstract: The need to provide increased access to flight simulator training for U.S. regional airlines, which historically have been limited by cost considerations in the use of such equipment for pilot recurrent training, is discussed in this article. In light of that need, the issue of whether more affordable fixed-base simulators, identical to full flight simulators in all respects except for absence of platform motion, might provide an equivalent level of safety when employed for recurrent training is examined. Pertinent literature from the past 2 decades is reviewed. The article observes that no definitive conclusion can be drawn that would warrant modification of current qualification requirements for platform motion in full flight simulators. The article concludes that this situation will remain unchanged unless new research is undertaken, which takes into account the lessons learned from past research, and the opportunities engendered by new technology. Broad guidelines for an appropriate research design are discussed.

En Route Operational Errors and Situational Awareness

Abstract: (1998). En Route Operational Errors and Situational Awareness. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology: Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 177-194.

Pilot selection in the Norwegian Air Force: a validation and meta-analysis of the test battery.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the test battery currently used for pilot selection to the Norwegian Air Force. Selection is currently based on a standard battery of 20 different psychological tests as well as on medical tests and on an interview by a licensed psychologist. First, two-factor analyses were conducted to examine the relation between the tests in the battery. Then, a correlation study was conducted to evaluate the predictive validity of the tests against two criteria of pilot performance collected during the basic training period. Finally, a small-scale meta-analysis of previous validation studies in Norway was conducted. The best predictors of success in training, based on the meta-analysis, were Instrument Comprehension (r = .29), Mechanical Principles (r = .23), and Aviation Information (r = .22)

Mixed-Media Communication on the Flight Deck: A Comparison of Voice, Data Link, and Mixed ATC Environments

Abstract: (1998). Mixed-Media Communication on the Flight Deck: A Comparison of Voice, Data Link, and Mixed ATC Environments. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology: Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 137-156.

Pilot Opinions on Cockpit Automation issues

Abstract: (1998). Pilot Opinions on Cockpit Automation issues. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology: Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 103-120.

Computer Modeling of Operator Mental Workload and Situational Awareness in Simulated Air-to-Ground Combat: An Assessment of Predictive Validity

Abstract: The predictive validity of computer modeling of operator mental workload and situational awareness during a simulated air-to-ground combat mission was assessed. In Phase 1 of the study, 12 participants completed a series of simulated flights and provided Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) ratings of workload and Situational Awareness Rating Technique (SART) ratings of situational awareness. In Phase 2, computer models of the combat mission were constructed using the Micro Saint modeling tool. The visual, auditory, kinesthetic, cognitive, and psychomotor components of workload associated with each task comprising the mission were estimated and used to derive measures of average and peak workload. The results from the flight-simulator data versus the Micro Saint data were similar but not identical, indicating that the computer models were partially but not completely valid predictors of mental workload and situational awareness. The computer modeling appeared to be a more effective predictor of...

A Mathematical Model of Glide-Slope Perception in the Visual Approach to Landing

Abstract: A mathematical model of glide-slope perception is presented for the visual approach to landing when there is a visually impoverished scene. The perceptual process has been modeled as the weighted average of the geometric relations in the scene that provide glide-slope information, with weights being adjusted during the approach to minimize the uncertainty in glide-slope perception. The model suggests that the optimum combination of relations providing glide-slope information is dependent on the range from the runway threshold and that there is a relation between the handling qualities of aircraft or flight simulators and the adjustment of the weights.

Predicting Naval Aviator Flight Training Performance Using Multiple Regression and an Artificial Neural Network

Abstract: (1998). Predicting Naval Aviator Flight Training Performance Using Multiple Regression and an Artificial Neural Network. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology: Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 121-135.

Oculographic assessment of workload influence on flight performance.

Abstract: Presented are specific parameters of visual information intake in pilots on the job. The role of eye movements in the process of visual stimulus reception is discussed. Our own study on a MIG-23 flight simulator is presented. The method of oculographic testing of pilots performing professional assignments differing in workload is presented, and the practical implications of oculographic research are discussed. Language: en

Coordination in the Cockpit: A Game-Theory View of Standard Operation Procedures

Abstract: Some basic principles of game theory confirm that flying according to standard operating procedures (SOP) leads to greater flight safety. In this article, the interaction in the cockpit is analyzed as a game whose goal is flight safety. The crew members are involved in interactions that determine the extent of their utility. It is demonstrated that adhering to SOP leads to maximum utility and, thus, to greater flight safety than deviating from it, even if an alternative procedure is equivalent as far as safety is concerned or seems to lead to greater utility.

Size-Distance Variance and Eye Accommodation: The Ways of an Investigator

Abstract: Biased judgments of size and distance are encountered with all types of imaging displays, and the literature on visual perception is replete with violations of the size-distance invariance hypothesis, including the paradoxical moon illusion. To sort out the basic variables that relate these seemingly unrelated events calls for unfettered multifactor experimentation rather than the severe reduction of traditional psychophysical methodology. The high correlation among the focal distance of the eyes, apparent size, and changes in the locus of the retinal blind spot would never have been discovered if all cues to distance other than accommodation had been eliminated, as called for by experimental reductionists.

An experimental comparison of alphanumeric and iconic formats of the filght mode annunciator

Abstract: An iconic alternative was designed for the conventional alphanumeric Flight Mode Annunciatior (FMA) display. Two types of FMA were compared in three experiments. The first experiment involved participants having to recall an FMA display that was presented for only a short time. The second experiment required participants to memorize the sequence in which three FMAs were presented. Performance was better for the iconic FMA. An additional experiment was performed to test which FMA type produced the best comprehension of flight modes. Neither FMA type demonstrated a clear advantage.

Cockpit Interruptions and Distractions: An Analysis of ASRS Reports and an Experimental Program

Abstract: A recent detailed analysis of 107 ASRS incident reports focusing on interruptions and distractions as their primary feature revealed several interesting and surprising findings. Of those tasks that were interfered with, over 40% fell within the category of monitoring; for example, monitoring the autopilot flying the aircraft, monitoring the pilot flying, or monitoring the altimeter or navigation instruments for future action. Surprisingly, over 60% of the tasks that were considered distractions fell under the broad category of communication or conversation. Using these findings, we have developed an experimental paradigm that will help us understand the method by which pilots perform certain monitoring tasks. Specifically, we hope to determine the degree to which pilots rely on internal time mechanisms versus external cues as a means of successfully completing a monitoring task. In addition, we will incorporate a battery of competing aviation type tasks, including communication, to see how these tasks affect the process of monitoring. The long range goal of this research is to find operational solutions that facilitate effective monitoring in the presence of both sudden interruptions and distractions that lead to unintended multiple tasks situations.

Temporal management of flight strips in en route air traffic control: a full-scope simulation test on task analyses assumptions

Abstract: In en route air traffic control, task analyses assume that the planning controller detects potential problems to alleviate the radar controller's workload. Ten expert controllers were involved in a full-scope simulation study, and displacements of flight strips were analyzed as a function of the controller and as a function of the role these motor acts have in indicating problem detection, monitoring the ongoing resolution, or sending the aircraft to other control positions. Task analysis assumptions related to the ongoing resolution and to the end of problems were confirmed. But contrary to task analysis assumptions, results reveal that conflict situations are detected by the radar controller. In line with previous field observations, this striking result raises a serious problem about the validity of the putative anticipatory role attributed to the planning controller.