Showing papers on "Core self-evaluations published in 2004"

Self-Employment and Job Satisfaction: Investigating the Role of Self-Efficacy, Depression, and Seniority

Abstract: Are self-employed workers more satisfied with their jobs compared to wage and salary workers? Using The National Survey of Families and Households: Wave I, 1987-1988, and Wave II 1992-1994 several expectations are evaluated in this article. First, self-employed persons should enjoy higher job satisfaction than others. Second, a portion of the association between job satisfaction and self-employment should be explained by higher levels of self-efficacy and by lower levels of depression among the self-employed compared to others. Third, self-employment veterans are a select group and should be different systematically from self-employment newcomers with respect to reported job satisfaction. Findings offer support for the first and second arguments above but not the third. Post-hoc analysis suggests that among the newly self-employed, the association between job satisfaction and self-employment depends on both the quantity and quality of time invested in the business. Implications of these findings and directions for further research are discussed. Introduction Entrepreneurs play an important role in the free-enterprise economic system. Much of the impetus for change, innovation, and progress in the U.S. economy will come from entrepreneurs (for example, Reynolds 1997; Light and Rosenstein 1995; Drucker 1985; Schumpeter 1934). Moreover, small firms create important new employment opportunities (Reynolds and White 1997; Light and Rosenstein 1995). Conventional wisdom suggests that the United States is increasingly a nation of entrepreneurs and self-starters. Indeed, the portion of the labor force accounted for by nonfarm self-employment, having declined steadily between 1870 and 1973, generally has been expanding since 1976 (Bregger 1996; Steinmetz and Wright 1989; Mills 1951), and this expansion is projected to continue into the near future (Silvestri 1999). Moreover, according to Gartner and Shane (1995), entrepreneurship, measured as the number of commercial firms per capita, nearly has tripled between the late 1970s and the mid 1990s and is significantly higher than at any time in the past hundred years. According to some observers, the contemporary period is the "era of the entrepreneur," in which the entrepreneur is viewed increasingly as a folk hero (Goffee and Scase 1987). Certainly not all self-employed individuals properly may be considered entrepreneurs, but self-employment and entrepreneurship are linked in the popular imagination. Evidence of public fascination with self-employment readily is available. In the United States, "being one's own boss ... is a deeply held ideal," with historical roots dating to the nation's founding (Steinmetz and Wright 1989, p. 974). Further, evidence from a cross-national survey research suggests that over 60 percent of Americans report a preference for self-employment as opposed to employment (Blanchflower, Oswald, and Stutzer 2001; Blanchflower and Oswald 1998). (1) In addition, some four percent of working-age adults may be engaged actively in starting a business at any particular time (Reynolds 1994). Moreover, results from the Entrepreneurial Research Consortium Study reported in the trade press suggest that approximately 33 percent of U.S. households "have had an intimate involvement in a new or small business" (as cited by Richman 1997). Why are individuals so positively disposed toward the prospect of starting a business? For many, more than expected financial rewards, the desire to be self-employed may be rooted in the perception that small business ownership promises greater autonomy and challenge than employment by a large bureaucratic organization (Vivarelli 1991). Indeed the notion that self-employed individuals gain greater satisfaction from their jobs than do other individuals is commonplace in both the popular press (for example, Leonard 2001; Willax 1998; Chun 1997) and in entrepreneurship textbooks (for example, Scarborough and Zimmerer 2000; Kuratko and Hodgetts 1998; Hatten 1997; Zimmerer and Scarborough 1996). …

Emotional Stability, Core Self-Evaluations, and Job Outcomes: A Review of the Evidence and an Agenda for Future Research

Abstract: In this article we present a review of research on core self-evaluations, a broad personality trait indicated by 4 more narrow traits: self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability. We review evidence suggesting that the 4 core traits are highly related, load on a single unitary factor, and have dubious incremental validity controlling for their common core. We more generally investigate the construct validity of core self-evaluations. We also report on the development and validation of the first direct measure of the concept, the Core Self-Evaluations Scale (CSES). Cross-cultural evidence on the CSES is provided. We conclude by offering an agenda for future research, discussing areas where future core self-evaluations research is most needed.

Job satisfaction and life satisfaction revisited: A longitudinal test of an integrated model

Abstract: Research indicates that job satisfaction is significantly related to life satisfaction. However, previous studies have not included variables that may confound the relationship. Furthermore, the vast majority of studies have relied on cross-sectional data. I tested a comprehensive model that examined the relationship between job and life satisfaction and a broad personality construct called ‘core self-evaluations’, as well as nonwork satisfaction and environmental variables, using a nationally representative (US), longitudinal data set. Results indicated that core self-evaluations was significantly related to both job satisfaction and life satisfaction over time, and that the relationship between job satisfaction and life satisfaction was not significant after taking into account the effects of core self-evaluations and nonwork satisfaction. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Factors explaining job satisfaction among faculty

Abstract: The purpose of this descriptive-correlational study was to describe the amount of variance in faculty member’s overall level of job satisfaction explained by Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman’s (1959) job motivator and hygiene factors. Additionally, the study sought to investigate the suitability of a one-item versus a multi-item measure of overall job satisfaction. The faculty were generally satisfied with their jobs. However, female faculty members were less satisfied than male faculty members. The factor “work itself” was the most motivating aspect for faculty. The least motivating aspect was “working conditions.” The demographic characteristics were negligibly related to overall job satisfaction. All of the job motivator and hygiene factors were moderately or substantially related to overall job satisfaction. The factors “recognition,” “supervision,” and “relationships” explained the variability among faculty members’ overall level of job satisfaction. The one-item measure of overall job satisfaction was not different from a multi-item measure of overall job satisfaction.

Participation’s Influence on Job Satisfaction The Importance of Job Characteristics

Abstract: A structural equationmodel was proposed to analyze the impact of employee participation and job characteristics on job satisfaction. The current study found that participative decision making has a significant positive effect on performance feedback, task significance, and career development support. Performance feedback was positively related to job specificity and career development support. Task significance and career development support were, in turn, positively related to job satisfaction. These findings suggest that participation has an important, albeit indirect, effect on employee job satisfaction through its influence on job characteristics. The implications of these findings for public management are discussed.

An experience-sampling measure of job satisfaction and its relationships with affectivity, mood at work, job beliefs, and general job satisfaction

Abstract: In this article, we proposed an experience-sampling method of measuring job satisfaction, assessed the contributions of average levels of mood at work and job beliefs to the prediction of job satisfaction, and examined the role of mood in mediating the relationship between affectivity and job satisfaction. The study involved a three-phase multisource longitudinal design that included experience-sampling surveys in the second phase of the study. Results suggested that average levels of experience-sampled job satisfaction indicate the general attitudinal construct of job satisfaction. As expected, pleasant mood at work and beliefs about the job made independent contributions to the prediction of job satisfaction (as measured with an overall evaluation and with an experience-sampling measure). In support of our mediation hypotheses, pleasant mood mediated the affectivity – job satisfaction relationship and the mediating effect was much stronger when job satisfaction was assessed with the experience-sampling method.

The Relative Importance of Psychological Acceptance and Emotional Intelligence to Workplace Well-Being.

Abstract: Psychological acceptance (acceptance) and emotional intelligence (EI) are two relatively new individual characteristics that are hypothesised to affect well-being and performance at work. This study compares both of them, in terms of their ability to predict various well-being outcomes (i.e. general mental health, physical well-being, and job satisfaction). In making this comparison, the effects of job control are accounted for; this is a work organisation variable that is consistently associated with occupational health and performance. Results from 290 United Kingdom workers showed that EI did not significantly predict any of the well-being outcomes, after accounting for acceptance and job control. Acceptance predicted general mental health and physical well-being but not job satisfaction, and job control was associated with job satisfaction only. Discussion focuses on the theoretical and applied implications of these findings. These include support for the suggestion that not controlling one's thoughts...

'Dark Side' Personality Styles as Predictors of Task, Contextual, and Job Performance

Abstract: Many meta-analyses and hundreds of primary studies have been carried out on the criterion-oriented validity of personality measures for predicting job performance. The Five-Factor Model of personality has been used as a frame for analyzing the empirical evidence. However, the research in industrial, work and organizational psychology has not examined the relationship between the dysfunctional tendencies of personality and the personality disorders as described in DSM-IV (Axis II) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and job performance. The present paper examines the relationship between job performance and the dysfunctional personality styles included in a non-clinical personality inventory developed to assess personality tendencies related to the dysfunctional (normal) personality styles and the personality disorders in work settings. This inventory assesses 14 dysfunctional personality styles and was given to a sample of 85 applicants. The job performance was rated by the direct supervisor 8 months later, and three measures were obtained: task performance, contextual performance, and overall job performance. The results showed that the seven dysfunctional personality styles (suspicious, shy, sad, pessimistic, sufferer, eccentric, and risky) predicted the three measures of job performance. The egocentric personality style negatively predicted contextual performance. Finally, the submitted style predicted task performance. With the exception of the risky personality style, the rest of the styles mainly consisted of Neuroticism. Implications for the research and practice of personnel selection are discussed.

Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction Levels of University Faculty by Discipline Type and by Geographic Region.

Abstract: Most organizations wisely monitor the satisfaction levels of their employees. Job satisfaction, for example, is related to employee motivation and performance (Ostroff, 1992). Job satisfaction is also significantly linked to employee absenteeism (Hackett & Guion, 1985) and turnover (Griffeth, Horn, & Gaertner, 2000). There is even some evidence that job satisfaction positively influences organizational citizenship behavior (Organ & Ryan, 1995). Clearly, job satisfaction is an important organizational variable. Pay satisfaction is a much narrower construct than job satisfaction. However, pay satisfaction is also an important variable that is linked to some rather significant organizational outcomes. For example, some evidence suggests that dissatisfaction with pay may lead to decreased job satisfaction, decreased motivation and performance, increased absenteeism and turnover, and more pay-related grievances and lawsuits (Cable & Judge, 1994; Gerhart & Milkovich, 1990; Huber & Crandall, 1994; Huselid, 1995; Milkovich & Newman, 2002). Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction of Faculty by Discipline and by Region A good deal of empirical research has been conducted on the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of employees in a variety of business settings. Very little empirical research, however, has investigated the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty in university settings (Oshagbemi, 2000b; Tang, 1999). Furthermore, no empirical research, to date, has systematically examined possible differences in the satisfaction levels of university faculty as a function of type of academic discipline (e.g., business, education, humanities, sciences, etc.), or as a function of geographic region in the U.S. Potential Moderators of Job Satisfaction and Pay Satisfaction A number of individual-level variables have been examined to see if they exert possible moderating effects on employees' levels of job satisfaction and pay satisfaction. For example, research has been conducted that has investigated whether job satisfaction and pay satisfaction are influenced by sex/gender (Keaveny & Inderrieden, 2000; Mason, 1995; Oshagbemi, 2000a; Oshagbemi, 2000b), age (Kalleberg & Loscocco, 1983; Oshagbemi, 1997; Oshagbemi, 2000a), seniority (Bedeian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992), and rank (Oshagbemi, 2000a; Oshagbemi, 2000b). Much of the research regarding the above-mentioned individual-level variables is contradictory and inconclusive. More research conducted in academic settings may help to eventually clarify the nature of the relationship of these individual-level variables to job and pay satisfaction. Organizational-level variables may also exert an influence upon the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty. For example, it is possible that the job and pay satisfaction levels of faculty members may be moderated by such variables as size (number of students), whether the institution is public or private, the presence or absence of unionization, and the overall salary level of the university. There is a lack of empirical data on the possible effects of these organizational-level variables on the job and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty. Some of these variables may prove to be significant moderators of satisfaction levels. We currently know very little about how these variables relate to faculty satisfaction. They may well have an important influence upon the satisfaction levels of faculty in university settings. Research Questions and Objectives The primary research objective of the current study is to provide more empirical data on the job satisfaction and pay satisfaction levels of faculty in university settings. More specifically, this study will explore possible differences in job and pay satisfaction levels of academic faculty as a function of type of academic discipline (e. …

The Interactive Effects of Politics Perceptions and Trait Cynicism on Work Outcomes

Abstract: The current study examined the interactive relationship of politics perceptions and trait cynicism on two work outcomes: job satisfaction and citizenship behaviors. Trait cynicism is characterized as a personality trait that is stable across settings. Using a diverse sample of 311 full-time employees drawn from a variety of organizations, trait cynicism moderated the relationship between politics perceptions and both outcomes. Specifically, for those possessing higher levels of trait cynicism, politics perceptions were associated with lower job satisfaction scores and less participation in citizenship behaviors. Implications of these findings, strengths and limitations, and avenues for additional research are provided.

Job level and national culture as joint roots of job satisfaction

Abstract: To examine cross-cultural and cross-occupational variations in job satisfaction, data from a multinational company survey with 129,087 respondents from 39 countries was analysed. Multilevel analyses showed that job level is positively related to job satisfaction in individualistic countries but not in collectivistic countries. Moreover, the positive relationship between job level and job satisfaction holds only for jobs with much opportunity to use one's skills and abilities, especially in individualistic countries. Job level is even negatively related to job satisfaction in jobs with little opportunity to use one's skills and abilities in collectivistic countries.

Job characteristics and personality as predictors of job satisfaction

Abstract: The nature of the relationship between job characteristics, personality, and job satisfaction was investigated. A longstanding debate exists between psychologists that believe structural characteristics of the job are the primary determinants of job satisfaction (Kulik, Oldham, & Hackman, 1987; O'Reilly & Roberts, 1975) and those that believe personal attributes of the worker are most important (Hackman & Lawler, 1971; Pervin, 1968). Information was collected from 163 participants on the Job Characteristics Inventory, the Myers‐Briggs Type Indicator (Form G), and the satisfaction scale of the Job Diagnostic Survey. Hierarchical regression analyses demonstrated that job characteristics successfully predicted job satisfaction (average Ra2 =.30). A series of hierarchical regressions indicated that personality had neither a direct effect on satisfaction nor a moderating effect on the job characteristics‐job satisfaction relation. These results indicate that, at least as measured by the MBTI, the characteristics of the individual may be of little importance during job redesign.

Individual Demographic Differences and Job Satisfaction among Information Technology Personnel: An Empirical Study in Taiwan

Abstract: A survey was conducted on IT personnel working in Taiwan's Top 500 Enterprises to explore effects of individual characteristics on job satisfaction. Results show that there were significant differences found in general, intrinsic and overall job satisfaction with regard to marital status, age, position title, and annual salary. Suggestions for increasing job satisfaction of IT personnel are proposed. Introduction To bring out the function of the information technology (IT) thoroughly, the enterprise takes not only the adequate hardware equipment and infrastructure, but also the perfect coordination between the information system (IS) and IT personnel. IT personnel will be the major human resources in enterprises. Hence, the key to make IT personnel grow and contribute themselves to the enterprise to create useful value for a long time and stably depends on their recognition, loyalty and job satisfaction to the enterprise. Accordingly, how the managers manage and encourage these professionals effectively has become the crux for future organizations. Job satisfaction is important in organizational behavior. It is based on employee's personal subjective perceptions and feelings. Therefore, individual is an important factor which affect employees' job satisfaction. Although general researches do not view the population background as dependent variables, practically, when an enterprise recruits employees or draws up personnel-related policies, it still expects to infer the employee's job satisfaction from the employee's personal file that is easily obtained and then constructs the responding model for the organization. This study takes the IT personnel working in Taiwan's Top 500 Enterprises, engaged in system development, software design and development, and software application as the studying subjects. The relationship between the individual demographic variables and job satisfaction of IT personnel in Taiwan will be studied thoroughly. Literature Review Job satisfaction is the individual's affective attitude or orientations for work (Blum & Naylor, 1968; Smith. Kendall, & Hulin, 1969; Muchinsky, 1990). The first study of job satisfaction was conducted by Hoppock (1935). There are many factors affecting employees' feeling for job satisfaction. Porter and Lawler (1968) divide the factors affecting job satisfaction into the intrinsic satisfactory factors related to work itself and the extrinsic satisfactory factors not directly related to work itself. Seashore and Taber (1975) consider that personal attributes and environment are the major factors affecting job satisfaction. Glisson and Durick (1988) indicate that the factors affecting job satisfaction are the worker himself/herself, work and organizational characteristics. Most studies have indicated that job satisfaction has positive effect on employees' working performance and organizational commitment, and negative effect on employee absenteeism and turnover (Menninger & Levison, 1956; Rabinowitz & Hall, 1977; Poulin, 1994; Reiner & Zhao, 1999; Clugston, 2000; Mclean & Andrew, 2000). In the study of the relationship between job satisfaction and personal characteristics, most studies indicate a positive association between age and job satisfaction (Lee & Wilbur, 1985; Reiner & Zhao, 1999). However, other studies have found a U-shaped relationship (Kacmar & Ferns, 1989; Eichar, Norland, Brady, & Fortinsky, 1991). Gender differences in job satisfaction have also been extensively studied. There is no conclusive evidence with regard to job satisfaction among men and women (Brush, Moch, & Pooyan, 1987; Witt & Nye, 1992). Tenure and job satisfaction are positively related (Bedian, Ferris, & Kacmar, 1992). That is, people who are more experienced on their jobs are more highly satisfied than those who are less experienced. White-collar personnel tend to be more satisfied with their jobs than blue-collar personnel (Weaver, 1980; Howard & Frink, 1996). …

Job Control and Social Support as Coping Resources in Job Satisfaction

Abstract: This study examined the effects of active coping on job satisfaction in the context of the job demands-control-support model. Participants were 867 employees (811 men and 56 women, M age = 35.2 yr.) of a large electrical company in Japan. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis examined whether effects of active coping on job satisfaction might depend on the extent of coping resources, such as job control or social support (supervisor and coworker). Analysis showed that the effect of active coping on job satisfaction depended on the extent of coworkers' support, not on job control and supervisors' support.

Autonomy and job satisfaction for a sample of Greek teachers

Abstract: Analysing the relation between Job Satisfaction and Autonomy in a sample of 300 Greek teachers (114 men and 186 women, 28 to 59 years old) from primary and secondary schools, showed statistically significant positive correlations between Job Satisfaction and Autonomy. Particularly, Autonomy was correlated with Job Itself (.21), Supervision (.22), and the Organizational as a Whole (.27), aspects of Job Satisfaction. Findings are in line with previous studies conducted in different cultural contexts. Percent common variance accounted for is small.

Is Involvement a Suppressor of the Job Satisfaction–Life Satisfaction Relationship?1

Abstract: Previous research has demonstrated a considerable correlation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction. In addition, various researchers have hypothesized that job importance (work involvement) should be a moderator of this relationship. However, most empirical tests did not confirm this assumption. We argue that job importance cannot turn out to be a moderator because the subjective importance of work is already part of job–satisfaction judgments, a notion that has been advanced by Locke (1969) as implicit importance weighting. However, a suppressor effect can be predicted because job importance should be correlated with job satisfaction, but not life satisfaction. In a study of recently hired incumbents (N= 811) in a large German electronics company, we distinguished between job involvement and work involvement. We considered the latter, but not the former, being a measure of job importance. Work involvement, but not job involvement, turned out to be a suppressor of the relation between job satisfaction and life satisfaction.

CORE SELF-EVALUATIONS, ASPIRATIONS, SUCCESS, AND PERSISTENCE An Attributional Model

Abstract: The study of attributions and personality are two of the most well-developed areas in all of psychology, but there are only limited efforts to integrate these areas due to the division between experimental and correlational psychology. The literature on attributions has also been divided into affective and cognitive camps. To achieve rapprochement between these areas, a model is developed that proposes that attributions are affected by stable core selfevaluations, and that these attributions, in turn, affect more proximal selfevaluations. The resultant model provides an opportunity to restore the concept of process to a central role in personality research and understand how stable individual differences might affect attributions for specific events. Understanding causal relationships is fundamental to the way that human beings make sense of and attempt to adapt to their worlds, even though for

Investigation of Placement Outcomes 3 Years after a Job Skills Training Program for Chronically Unemployed Adults.

Abstract: This analysis of chronically unemployed job seekers after they completed a comprehensive job skills training program reveals dynamic interpersonal and intrapersonal characteristics that have an impact on job-finding success. Of primary interest in this study was the relationship between R. B. Cattell's (1988) second-order personality factors and participants' employment status 3 years after they graduated from the job skills program. Furthermore, U.S. Department of Labor worker trait classifications, such as aptitude, academic achievement, work history, and Holland's hexagonal definitions of career interest were also analyzed (United States Employment Service, 1972). Relatively robust correlations between job holding status and 2 of the second-order personality factors on Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire were illuminated: Independence and Objectivity.

The relationship of the big five personality dimensions to personal and organizational outcomes : answering the questions who? and when?

Abstract: Despite the enormous growth of research on personality due to the development of the Big Five model, there is still much to be learned about the relation of personality to personal and organizational outcomes. An area requiring attention is the incorporation of situational variables into empirical models to enhance the predictive capacity of personality in explaining outcomes. This study fills this gap by exploring the joint effects of the Big Five personality dimensions and contextual factors (job scope, social aspects of job, and justice perceptions) on a variety of personal and organizational outcomes. The results support many hypotheses suggesting the moderating role of job scope in personality-outcomes relationships. Job scope moderated the relationship between various Big Five traits and job satisfaction, job stress, job performance, and creativity. Similarly, distributive justice and voice had joint effects with personality on citizenship behaviors.

ORGANIZATIONAL AND PERSONALITY EFFECTS ON MANAGERS’ JOB STRESS: Is It Different for Malaysian Men and Women?

Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to determine the influence of organizational variables (conflict, blocked career, alienation, work overload, and unfavorable work environment) and personality variables (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness) on job stress among managers working in the electronics sector in 4Malaysia and whether this relationship varies according to their gender. Analyses of 285 responses using hierarchical regression revealed that four of five organizational variables (blocked career, alienation, work overload, and conflict) had significant positive effects on job stress. In terms of the personality traits, neuroticism and conscientiousness were found to be significantly and positively related to stress. Extraversion and agreeableness, on the other hand, had significant negative effects on job stress. Gender was found to moderate the effects of all the independent variables on job stress at the 0.01 level. Implications for managerial practice and future research are discussed.

The Influence of Type A Personality and Locus of Control upon Job Satisfaction and Mental Health among Medical Staff

Abstract: Objective:To explore the influence of type A personality and locus of control upon job satisfaction and mental health among medical staff.Methods:Type A personality subscale, mental health subscale and job satisfaction subscale of OSI-2 and WLCS were administrated to 290 doctors and nurses. Results:(1)Both type A personality and locus of control had significant negative correlation with job satisfaction and mental health. (2)Type A external expressed the lowest job satisfaction and the worst mental health. (3)Type B internal displayed the highest job satisfaction and the best mental health. Conclusion:Personality types influence job satisfaction and mental health.

Job Satisfaction in Older Workers: The Case of a Garment Manufacturing Company in Northwest Arkansas

Abstract: Previous research in the area of age and job satisfaction has shown a positive relationship between employee age and reported levels of job satisfaction. Several models have been proposed to explain this relationship, including both a life cycle model and various situational models. In this study, results of an employee survey conducted among factory workers in rural Arkansas were analyzed. There was a decrease in overall job satisfaction after age 45. Perceptions of management fairness and problem resolution also decreased with age. The results indicate that the relationship between job satisfaction and age can best be explained by determining the effect of age and associated factors on employees' expectations and the probability that those expectations can be met in the specific work setting. INTRODUCTION The topic of work motivation, and one of its subcategories, job satisfaction, has received a level of attention from researchers in psychology and management that might well be characterized as "intense interest" (Steers & Porter, p. xi). The level of research activity in this area should not be surprising, though, as conclusions or results from this area of research are applicable to a wide range of human activities and can often be useful in a business setting, both to increase individuals' satisfaction with their work and to increase the effectiveness of organizations. Job satisfaction has been defined as "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one's job or job experiences" (Locke, p. 1300). As a human emotion, then, job satisfaction will certainly be affected by a great number of individual difference characteristics and environmental variables. One individual difference characteristic that has received a good deal of attention is the relationship of employee age to level of job satisfaction. The topic of job satisfaction and the research in this area may be classified or broken down into two areas. The first area is a theoretical area: the definition of job satisfaction and its dimensions. The second area is an applied area: determining which worker characteristics, outside factors, and management interventions affect job satisfaction. It is this area, and particularly worker characteristics, that will be the focus of this study. AGE AND JOB SATISFACTION The role of age in job satisfaction has been explained in several ways. Four alternative models are the career stage model (Hall & Mansfield, 1975), Rhodes' taxonomy (1983), Zeitz's situational model (1990), and the job change hypothesis suggested by White and Spector (1987). The first model, the career stage model, looks at individuals as passing through various stages in their lives and careers. Hall and Mansfield (1975) use the career stage model to account for age differences in job satisfaction. In their research, they suggested three career stages. In the early stage (age 20 to 34), the individual is in a trial phase and the highest needs are for self fulfillment. Individuals in the second or middle stage (ages 35 to 50) are in a "stabilization substage" (p. 208), in which the need for self fulfillment is strong and in which the individual is looking for professional achievement. During the third and final stage (age 50+), the individual is in a "maintenance" (p. 208) stage. The individuals in this stage are most strongly motivated by the need for security, yet they also show a higher level of intrinsic motivation (as defined by Herzberg, Mausner, Peterson & Capwell, 1957). In the taxonomy proposed by Rhodes (1983), age effects on work attitudes and behaviors are divided into four categories: Chronological Age, Cohort Effects, Period Effects, and Sources of Systematic Error. The first category, Chronological Age, includes the effects of both psychosocial aging and biological aging. Psychosocial aging includes, but is not limited to, the individual's passage through life cycles. …