Showing papers on "Heterosexism published in 2010"
TL;DR: The findings suggest that rape prevention programs and policies must be broadened to incorporate strategies that also address other oppressive beliefs concurrent with RMA, and a renewed awareness of how RMA shapes societal perceptions of rape victims could also reduce victims’ re-victimization and enhance their coping mechanisms.
Abstract: Although male rape is being reported more often than before, the majority of rape victims continue to be women. Rape myths—false beliefs used mainly to shift the blame of rape from perpetrators to victims—are also prevalent in today’s society and in many ways contribute toward the pervasiveness of rape. Despite this, there has been limited consideration as to how rape prevention programs and policies can address this phenomenon, and there is no updated information on the demographic, attitudinal, or behavioral factors currently associated with rape myths. This research aimed to address this gap by examining the correlates of rape-myths acceptance (RMA) in published studies. A total of 37 studies were reviewed, and their results were combined using meta-analytic techniques. Overall, the findings indicated that men displayed a significantly higher endorsement of RMA than women. RMA was also strongly associated with hostile attitudes and behaviors toward women, thus supporting feminist premise that sexism perpetuates RMA. RMA was also found to be correlated with other “isms,” such as racism, heterosexism, classism, and ageism. These findings suggest that rape prevention programs and policies must be broadened to incorporate strategies that also address other oppressive beliefs concurrent with RMA. Indeed, a renewed awareness of how RMA shapes societal perceptions of rape victims, including perceptions of service providers, could also reduce victims’ re-victimization and enhance their coping mechanisms.
675 citations
TL;DR: This paper will draw on recently emerging intersectionality research in the Canadian women's health context in order to explore the promises and practical challenges of the processes involved in applying an intersectionality paradigm.
Abstract: Women's health research strives to make change. It seeks to produce knowledge that promotes action on the variety of factors that affect women's lives and their health. As part of this general movement, important strides have been made to raise awareness of the health effects of sex and gender. The resultant base of knowledge has been used to inform health research, policy, and practice. Increasingly, however, the need to pay better attention to the inequities among women that are caused by racism, colonialism, ethnocentrism, heterosexism, and able-bodism, is confronting feminist health researchers and activists. Researchers are seeking new conceptual frameworks that can transform the design of research to produce knowledge that captures how systems of discrimination or subordination overlap and "articulate" with one another. An emerging paradigm for women's health research is intersectionality. Intersectionality places an explicit focus on differences among groups and seeks to illuminate various interacting social factors that affect human lives, including social locations, health status, and quality of life. This paper will draw on recently emerging intersectionality research in the Canadian women's health context in order to explore the promises and practical challenges of the processes involved in applying an intersectionality paradigm. We begin with a brief overview of why the need for an intersectionality approach has emerged within the context of women's health research and introduce current thinking about how intersectionality can inform and transform health research more broadly. We then highlight novel Canadian research that is grappling with the challenges in addressing issues of difference and diversity. In the analysis of these examples, we focus on a largely uninvestigated aspect of intersectionality research - the challenges involved in the process of initiating and developing such projects and, in particular, the meaning and significance of social locations for researchers and participants who utilize an intersectionality approach. The examples highlighted in the paper represent important shifts in the health field, demonstrating the potential of intersectionality for examining the social context of women's lives, as well as developing methods which elucidate power, create new knowledge, and have the potential to inform appropriate action to bring about positive social change.
285 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that LGB people of color may be exposed to greater levels of heterosexist stigma and its deleterious correlates (greater risk) or may be more resilient to such stigma (resilience).
Abstract: Conceptual discussions about LGB people of color suggest that, compared with White LGB individuals, LGB people of color may be exposed to greater levels of heterosexist stigma and its deleterious correlates (greater risk) or may be more resilient to such stigma (resilience). This study tested tenets of these two perspectives with a sample of 178 LGB persons, about 50% of whom identified as White and 50% as people of color. Findings suggested similarities between LGB people of color and White LGB individuals in levels of perceived heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, and comfort with disclosure of sexual orientation and in relations of heterosexist stigma with sexual orientation disclosure variables. But, compared with data for White LGB participants, data for LGB people of color suggested lower levels of outness and a weaker relation between perceived heterosexist stigma and internalized homophobia. Implications of these findings for further research and practice are discussed.
181 citations
TL;DR: This paper examined sexual minority women's reports of sexism, heterosexism, and gendered heterosism as predictors of social identity and social identity variance, and found that sexual-minority women report sexism and gender discrimination more frequently than men.
Abstract: This study examined sexual-minority women's reports of sexism, heterosexism, and gendered heterosexism (discrimination that is both sexist and heterosexist) as predictors of social identity and col...
140 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined multiple minority stressors (i.e., heterosexist events, racist events, heterosism in communities of color, racism in sexual minority communities, race-related dating and relationship problems, internalized heterosxism or homophobia, outness to family, and outness-to-world) as they relate to the psychological distress of 144 Asian American lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) persons.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine multiple minority stressors (i.e., heterosexist events, racist events, heterosexism in communities of color, racism in sexual minority communities, race-related dating and relationship problems, internalized heterosexism or homophobia, outness to family, and outness to world) as they relate to the psychological distress of 144 Asian American lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) persons. When examined concomitantly, these minority stress variables accounted for approximately one third of the variance in psychological distress scores. Results indicate that heterosexism in communities of color, race-related dating and relationship problems in the LGBTQ community, internalized heterosexism, and outness to world were the only significant and unique predictors of Asian American LGBTQ persons’ psychological distress. In addition, no support was found for the moderating or mediating roles of outness in the internalized heterosexism-distress link.
126 citations
TL;DR: Investigation of coming out to family and friends and their relationships to shame, internalized heterosexism, lesbian identity, and perceived social support in Chinese lesbians from 2 different cultural settings showed that a sense of shame was related to internalized heterosexuality and a devaluation of one's lesbian identity.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate coming out to family and friends and their relationships to shame, internalized heterosexism, lesbian identity, and perceived social support in Chinese lesbians from 2 different cultural settings-Mainland China (N = 244) and Hong Kong (N = 234). Results of structural equation modeling showed that, in both samples, a sense of shame was related to internalized heterosexism and a devaluation of one's lesbian identity, which in turn was related to a decreased likelihood of coming out to others. Shame was also associated with a reduced perception of support from friends, which seemed in turn to exacerbate internalized heterosexism among lesbians. Family support was generally unrelated to outness, except for outness to friends in the Hong Kong sample. Results are discussed in relation to the cultural stigma attached to same-sex orientation and the cultural practice of shaming that parents use to socialize children.
116 citations
TL;DR: This article surveyed teachers in a US teacher education program regarding their attitudes towards diversity, particularly issues of sexuality, their feelings of "cultural competence" around diversity, and the repertoires of practices and resources they feel prepared to draw on in their work with middle and high schools students.
101 citations
TL;DR: Political campaigns to deny same-sex couples the right to civil marriage have been demonstrated to increase minority stress and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals, and 7 themes are illustrated and discussed in light of their implications for conceptualizing and intervening to address discrimination and its negative psychological effects.
Abstract: Political campaigns to deny same-sex couples the right to civil marriage have been demonstrated to increase minority stress and psychological distress in lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals (S. S. Rostosky, E. D. B. Riggle, S. G. Horne, & A. D. Miller, 2009). To further explicate the psychological reactions of LGB individuals to marriage amendment campaigns, a content analysis was conducted of open-ended responses from 300 participants in a national online survey that was conducted immediately following the November 2006 election. LGB individuals indicated that they felt indignant about discrimination; distressed by the negative rhetoric surrounding the campaigns; fearful and anxious about protecting their relationships and families; blaming of institutionalized religion, ignorance, conservative politicians, and the ineffective political strategies used by LGBT organizers; hopeless and resigned; and, finally, hopeful, optimistic, and determined to keep fighting for justice and equal rights. These 7 themes are illustrated and discussed in light of their implications for conceptualizing and intervening to address discrimination and its negative psychological effects.
95 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the role of solicited diaries combined with diary interviews was considered to access the everyday ways in which self-identified lesbians and gay men are made aware of their sexuality.
Abstract: In using the solicited diaries to access the everyday ways in which self-identified lesbians and gay men are made aware of their sexuality, this paper considers the role of solicited diaries combined with diary interviews. Furthermore it draws on empirical evidence to argue that a diary interview provides a richer, deeper and contextual understanding of the documented experiences. The paper reflects on the participants' experiences of keeping the solicited diary, the narratives produced through the solicited diaries and heterosexism as one the main themes to emerge from the solicited diaries and diary interview analysis.
URN: urn:nbn:de:0114-fqs1002160
90 citations
TL;DR: It is suggested that both coupled and single non-heterosexual women should be made more visible in reproductive health and pregnancy loss research.
Abstract: results: The analysis highlights three themes: processes and practices for conception; amplification of loss; and health care and heterosexism Of the respondents, 84% conceived using donor sperm; most used various resources to plan conception and engaged in preconception health care The experience of loss was amplified due to contextual factors and the investment respondents reported making in impending motherhood Most felt that their loss(es) had made a ‘significant’/‘very significant’ impact on their lives Many respondents experienced health care during their loss Although the majority rated the overall standard of care as ‘good’/‘very good’/‘outstanding’, a minority reported experiencing heterosexism from health professionals conclusions: The implications for policy and practice are outlined The main limitation was that the inflexibility of the methodology did not allow the specificities of women’s experiences to be probed further It is suggested that both coupled and single non-heterosexual women should be made more visible in reproductive health and pregnancy loss research
77 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine lesbian teachers' negotiation of the public/private boundary in the school, focusing on identity management in the context of the heterosexualised space of this public institution and examine the teachers' responses, and the ways in which they mediate the 'polite' silences in relation to lesbian and gay sexuality.
Abstract: This article examines lesbian teachers' negotiation of the public/private boundary in the school, focusing on identity management in the context of the heterosexualised space of this public institution The study is based on interviews conducted with six lesbian teachers working in London secondary schools I examine the teachers' responses, and the ways in which they mediate the 'polite' silences in relation to lesbian and gay sexuality, as situated in a framework of liberal tolerance found in public and political domains Sex and relationship education guidance, as well as recent policy initiatives concerned with homophobic bullying, play an important role in framing the discourses around sexuality in the school However, the continuation of problems with heterosexism and homophobia in schools is evident I argue that the lesbian teacher's negotiation of the public/private boundary and of power relations involves the heightened importance of a 'good teacher' identity, and an emphasis on professionalism While these teachers do not speak of direct victimisation or abuse, much change needs to take place to transform the school into a place where lesbian and gay sexuality may be named without fear
TL;DR: Croteau et al. as discussed by the authors explored the relationship between perceptions of organizational climate for heterosexism, level of workplace outness, stigmatization salience, and performance of organizational citizenship behaviors.
Abstract: An initial test and validation of a model predicting perceived organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) of lesbian and gay employees were conducted using structural equation modeling. The proposed structural model demonstrated acceptable goodness of fit and structural invariance across 2 samples (ns = 311 and 295), which suggested that altruistic OCB performance is precipitated by workplace outness. Furthermore, stigmatization salience and organizational climate for heterosexism predict levels of workplace outness. Organizational climate for heterosexism is negatively related to stigmatization salience. When the model was tested on 2 samples, all structural paths except 1 were significant. Being out in the workplace is a complicated proposition for men and women who identify as gay or lesbian. These workers routinely make decisions about the personal costs and benefits of revealing their sexual orientation identity to their supervisors/superiors, coworkers, subordinates, and clients. Disclosure of one's same-sex attraction may bring increased psychological well-being and less discordance between vocational and avocational life spheres; however, the risks of being out, or "outness," in the workplace are increased levels of workplace discrimination and stress, such as the loss of advancement opportunities; diminished credibility; and less positive regard by coworkers (see Chung, 1995; Croteau, Anderson, Distefano, & Kampa- Kokesch, 2000; Croteau, Bieschke, Fassinger, & Manning, 2008; Waldo, 1999). Much less is known, however, about the potential costs and benefits of outness as related to organizations. Questions remain about the ways in which employees' perceptions of organizational climate for heterosexism and levels of workplace outness relate to organizational variables (e.g., productivity, retention). Concealing and/or directing efforts toward managing one's level of workplace outness may affect the overall organization in that energy that might have been directed toward work-related endeavors must be redirected to self- and job-preserving strategies. That is, heterosexist environments may require self-focused attention on the part of gay men and lesbians so that they may manage their minority sexual orientation status effectively (Croteau et al., 2000; Powers, 1996; Prince, 1995). The purpose of the current study was to explore the relationships among perceptions of organizational climate for heterosexism, level of workplace outness, stigmatization salience, and performance of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs; Smith, Organ, & Near, 1983). OCBs are extra- role prosocial behaviors performed by employees in the workplace (e.g., helping a coworker who is behind on his or her workload), which are theoretically and empirically related to organizational success (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). We propose a theoretical model that attempts to explain variance in performance of OCBs (see Figure 1). Organizational Climate for Heterosexism, Workplace Outness, and Stigmatization Salience Most theories of identity development posit that the process of coming out is a complex series of lifelong cognitive, affective, and behavioral changes (Reynolds 8c Hanjorgiris, 2000), with different degrees of disclosure of one's sexual orientation identity across many life domains, including the workplace domain (Mohr & Fassinger, 2000). For lesbians and gay men, the organizational climate for heterosexism holds atypical importance. It signals to them, implicitly or explicitly, whether their work environment is one in which they can allow for the possibility of being exposed and comfortable in their sexual minority status (Croteau et al., 2008; Fassinger, 2000). Generally, studies have supported the notion that an organization's climate for heterosexism is related to levels of sexual minority employees' self-disclosure (e.g., Griffith & Hebl, 2002; Ragins & Cor'nwell, 2001; Waldo, 1999). …
TL;DR: Findings from the secondary analysis of data from focus group discussions on elder abuse held with marginalized older adults and (quasi)professionals caring for them in two Canadian cities revealed that increased vulnerability to elder abuse was related to oppression experienced as a consequence of ageism, sexism, ableism/ disability, racism, heterosexism/homophobia, classism, and various intersecting types of oppression.
Abstract: The voices of elderly people from marginalized groups are rarely solicited, and the relationship between elder maltreatment and belonging to an oppressed group has not been adequately investigated. This article reviews the literature on oppression and elder abuse and describes findings from the secondary analysis of data from focus group discussions on elder abuse held with marginalized older adults and (quasi)professionals caring for them in two Canadian cities. Participants identified that increased vulnerability to elder abuse was related to oppression experienced as a consequence of ageism, sexism, ableism/disability, racism, heterosexism/homophobia, classism, and various intersecting types of oppression.
TL;DR: Findings call for immediate development and dissemination of heterosexism and homophobia training of social service staff, policy changes within the nursing home, and policy advocacy priorities for social workers.
Abstract: The purpose of this descriptive study is to report findings from a nationally representative mail-in survey of nursing home social service directors (n = 1,071) who were asked if they had received at least one hour of training in six different areas of cultural competency in the past five years Of the six areas, the lowest percentage of directors reported having training in homophobia Three-fourths of the sample had not received even one hour of homophobia training over the past five years Directors who were more recently educated were more likely to report having received homophobia training, as were directors with a college degree, and those who worked in nursing homes located in the West and South regions of the United States Directors with the most experience were less likely to report having received training Findings call for immediate development and dissemination of heterosexism and homophobia training of social service staff, policy changes within the nursing home, and policy advocacy priorities for social workers
TL;DR: The authors developed and tested a model of heterosexism in employment decisions based on the lack of fit model of discrimination and social psychological research on attitudes toward gay men and lesbians, and found that job candidates' sexual orientation, gender, and job gender type interacted with raters' gender and exposure to diversity training to predict ratings of candidate hirability.
Abstract: We developed and tested a model of heterosexism in employment decisions based on the lack of fit model of discrimination and social psychological research on attitudes toward gay men and lesbians. Results were supportive of both perspectives in that job candidates’ sexual orientation, gender, and job gender type interacted with raters’ gender and exposure to diversity training to predict ratings of candidate hirability. Consistent with prior attitudinal research, male raters tended to perceive gay male applicants as least suitable for employment. Finally, raters’ attitudes toward gay men and lesbians, beliefs about the employability of gay men and lesbians, and social dominance orientation were differentially related to suitability and hirability ratings. The theoretical and practical implications of these results are discussed. jasp_669 2527..2555
TL;DR: Findings from a qualitative study that explored the experiences of 21 gay men and lesbian women who care, or cared, for a person with dementia demonstrate the ways in which carers mediated disclosures of their sexualities to health and social care service providers and, for some, their wider support network.
Abstract: This article reports on findings from a qualitative study, undertaken in England that explored the experiences of 21 gay men and lesbian women who care, or cared, for a person with dementia. The aim of the study was to explore how a person's gay or lesbian sexuality might impact upon their experience of providing care in this context. This paper reports on one theme that emerged from the wider study--carers' experiences of 'coming out' to service providers. Respondents were recruited using 'snowballing' methods and the study employed semi-structured interviewing techniques. Data collection occurred over a protracted period (2003-2007), the time scale being determined by (the well documented) difficulties in recruiting respondents from this group of people. Data analysis was undertaken with the intent of developing common and contrary themes using a constant thematic comparative method. The results reported here demonstrate the ways in which carers mediated disclosures of their sexualities to health and social care service providers and, for some, their wider support network. For many carers, responses to these disclosures proved to be a critical issue and one that coloured their experience of providing care. Service providers' reactions are demonstrated as being characterised by, at best, a broad acceptance of gay and lesbian people's circumstances, through to a pervasive disregard of their needs.
TL;DR: The findings from this study begin to elucidate the unique context of TTC for lesbian and bisexual women, and they highlight the importance of culturally competent social work practice with this population.
Abstract: To date, there is little evidence to inform social work practice with lesbian and bisexual women who are trying to conceive (TTC). The authors report a preliminary examination of the mental health experiences of lesbian and bisexual women who are TTC, through a comparison with lesbian and bisexual women in the postpartum period (PP). Thirty-three lesbian and bisexual women (TTC, n = 15; PP, n = 18) completed standardized questionnaires assessing symptoms of depression and anxiety as well as relationship satisfaction and perceived social support. Qualitative interviews were also conducted to further investigate the experience of TTC. No significant differences were found between groups on any of the dependent variables. Analysis of qualitative data highlighted the challenges for lesbian and bisexual women who are TTC, particularly in terms of difficulty conceiving, lack of support during the conception process, and heterosexism in the fertility system. Women perceived these challenges to conception as having emotional consequences. The findings from this study begin to elucidate the unique context of TTC for lesbian and bisexual women, and they highlight the importance of culturally competent social work practice with this population.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine how broad heteronormative discourses circulate, become embodied within, negotiated by, and potentially resisted within a university, a college of education, and educators themselves.
Abstract: In this study, we examine how broad heteronormative discourses circulate, become embodied within, negotiated by, and potentially resisted within a university, a college of education, and educators themselves. We pay special attention to how heteronormative discourses at Southwestern University (SWU) impact the various roles this college of education undertakes to train professionals in a range of human service occupations, most notably K‐12 schools. In our findings, we demonstrate ways in which the institution of SWU maintains a hostile environment toward LGBTQ individuals, ways in which the college of education fails to interrogate such issues and train its educators and other human service personnel to deal with issues of sexuality and schooling, and how SWU, in regards at least to its conservative position on homosexuality, is constituted discursively as quite normal.
TL;DR: A review of research focusing on counseling lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals reveals a dearth of information regarding counseling interventions, particularly with bisexual and trans individuals as mentioned in this paper. But some express ambivalence about these models.
Abstract: A review of scholarship focusing on counseling lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender individuals reveals a dearth of information regarding counseling interventions, particularly with bisexual and transgender individuals. Influences such as religious and political affiliation, as well as institutional heterosexism, can create obstacles to lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender affirmative counseling. Models of sexual minority development can guide counselors in providing affirmative lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender counseling, but some express ambivalence about these models. Suggestions for counselor and counselor preparation training are provided, along with lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender affirmative counseling and training scenarios and interventions.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigate differences pertaining to race, gender, knowing a bisexual person, religiosity and sexual orientation in relation to attitudes toward bisexual women and men in South Africa.
Abstract: The aim of this study was to investigate differences pertaining to race, gender, knowing a bisexual person, religiosity and sexual orientation in relation to attitudes toward bisexual women and men in South Africa. The Attitudes Regarding Bisexuality Scale was administered. The reliability of the scale was significantly lower than desired for the sample of 1,459 university students. In an attempt to understand the sample's views on bisexuality, a focus group was organized, resulting in a revised instrument. The revised scale, a sexual orientation scale and a biographical questionnaire were consequently completed by 578 university students. The results indicated differences in attitudes between men and women, knowing or not knowing a bisexual person, being deeply religious or not, and various sexual orientation groups.
TL;DR: Two studies explore assertive responding to everyday heterosexism and highlight the impactful interchange between targets and perpetrators in the context of everyday discrimination.
Abstract: Two studies explore assertive responding to everyday heterosexism. In Study 1, gay and bisexual men described their responses to heterosexism through diaries and focus groups. Negotiating interpersonal and social implications of their choices, participants favored a range of assertive responses with minimal expression of hostility. In Study 2, various confrontations (styled after diary descriptions) were delivered by an openly gay actor in a task group that included one heterosexual male participant (self-selecting as bystander or perpetrator). The actor's confrontation style (nonassertive, nonhostile assertive, hostile assertive) had no differential impact on participants' subsequent expressions of heterosexism; however, the nonhostile assertive actor did receive the best interpersonal ratings from participants. Results highlight the impactful interchange between targets and perpetrators in the context of everyday discrimination.
TL;DR: The findings regarding gay men’s depressive symptoms rebut minority stress explanation of sexual orientation mental health disparities and there is no merit to the claim that these findings undermine the minority stress perspective.
Abstract: Savin-Williams, Cohen, Joyner, and Rieger (2010) suggest that purported “mental health discrepancies among male sexual orientation groups are illusory.” They suggest that their findings regarding gay men’s depressive symptoms rebut minority stress explanation of sexual orientation mental health disparities. But as it pertains to minority stress theory, their rationale is flawed.
Minority stress is a frequently used framework for understanding observed health disparities between sexual minority and heterosexual populations (Herek & Garnets, 2007). Minority stress suggests that (1) lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals (LGB) comprise a disadvantaged social group that is subject to stigma and prejudice; (2) stigma and prejudice related to sexual orientation predispose LGB to excess stress; and (3) in turn, this excess stress may lead to adverse health outcomes and, thus, observed health disparities (Meyer, 2003). Studies using the minority stress perspective have consistently documented mental health disparities between LGB and heterosexual populations. This is evidenced, for example, in studies that used meta-analysis to summarize this literature (King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2003).
Savin-Williams et al. argued that the observed disparity is faulty because researchers have used an inappropriate reference group in studying mental health outcomes in gay and bisexual men. Typically, researchers compare gay and bisexual men with heterosexual men when they document mental health disparities; Savin-Williams et al. suggest that gay and bisexual men should be compared with heterosexual women, not men. The reason for this is that “cross-sex comparisons are more suitable for situations in which nonheterosexual men are assessed on sexually dimorphic variables.” This claim is based on vast research that showed that gay and bisexual men are more like heterosexual women than heterosexual men on various measures (e.g., Bailey, 2009; Bailey & Zucker, 1995). For example, Savin-Williams et al. cite Bailey (2009), who has showed that “same-sex oriented men are, on average, more sex atypical in their self-concepts, motor behavior, body movements, occupational careers, and recreational interests than heterosexual men.” Following this rationale, Savin-Williams et al. go on to show that gay and bisexual men’s level of depressive symptoms is not different from that of heterosexual women. Thus, they conclude “once recontextualized, the depressive symptoms reported by nonheterosexual men are not remarkable or even unexpected.”
Even if one would concede the premise of the argument— that “same-sex oriented men are more similar to heterosexual women than heterosexual men”—there is no merit to the claim that these findings undermine the minority stress perspective. The main reason for this is that Savin-Williams et al. make their argument based on one sexual minority subgroup—gay and bisexual men, excluding lesbians and bisexual women— and one outcome—depressive symptoms, excluding anxiety and substance use disorders. This cherry-picked comparison is not sufficient to test minority stress theory. Minority stress rests on sociological theory that links social structure with health outcomes (through the impact of stress). Therefore, it makes predictions about differentially situated groups (disadvantaged versus advantaged groups) and predicts similar patterns across various mental disorders (Schwartz & Meyer, 2010). Savin-Williams et al. err on both counts.
First, minority stress suggests that sexual minorities are socially disadvantaged in our society due to homophobia and heterosexism as a group—that is, across all subgroups, such as those defined by gender, race/ethnicity, etc. For the study of minority stress, therefore, the groups compared ought to be all sexual minorities—men and women—versus all heterosexuals. Similarly, if gender inequality was studied, the reference group for women would be men; if race/ethnic inequality was studied, the reference group for race/ethnic minorities would be whites. This is because in each comparison we are interested in the average effect on the disadvantaged versus advantaged, that is, across diverse subgroups within (Schwartz & Meyer, 2010). Savin-Williams et al.’s hypothesis is refuted when one examines LGB as a group versus heterosexuals as a group. Consistent with the minority stress hypothesis, in such comparisons, LGB populations have higher rates of mental disorders than heterosexuals (King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2003).
Second, minority stress (and social stress theory more generally) is a sociological theory that predicts that disadvantaged social status affects the aggregate of mental disorders, rather than any particular disorder—we are interested in whether a disadvantaged group member has any disorder that is caused by minority stress. This is because social disadvantage and resultant stress are thought to be generic pathogens. Minority stress does not predict a specific impact on, say, depression versus anxiety and substance use disorders. Although this is not an infallible rule, researchers should provide a good reason to exclude one disorder or another. A reason to exclude a disorder would be, for example, that stress has no part in causing the disorder. In such a hypothetical situation, if stress does not play a causal role, the researcher could not reasonably hypothesize that minority stress would lead to excess disorder in the disadvantaged group.
This problem in Savin-Williams et al.’s proposed reference group hypothesis is reminiscent of a 1970s debate in the sociology of mental health about gender role stress and disorder. Gove and Tudor (1976) claimed that a higher level of depression in women compared with men is evidence of women’s gender role stress. Critics argued, as we argue here, that selecting depression alone of all mental disorders is wrong because it provides opportunistic support for a favorite theory. When all mental disorders were compared, it became evident that women and men have similar levels of disorders, refuting the proposed gender role hypothesis (Dohrenwend & Dohrenwend, 1976). An alternative hypothesis was offered for the differing patterns of disorders, suggesting that men and women’s stress response differed: Women internalize stress, resulting in higher levels of mood disorders, and men externalize stress, resulting in higher levels of substance use disorders and antisocial behaviors (Rosenfield, 1999).
If we relied on these gendered patterns of difference between internalizing and externalizing disorders that are characteristic of men and women in the general population, we would expect, based on Savin-Williams et al.’s proposed hypothesis, that gay and bisexual men would be similar to heterosexual women in patterns of substance used disorders. In fact, this is not the case: gay and bisexual men have a much higher prevalence of substance use problems, including substance use disorders, than heterosexual women (King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2003). As a result, when all mental disorders are considered, gay and bisexual men have higher levels of disorder than heterosexual women. This finding is consistent with the minority stress hypothesis but not with Savin-Williams et al.’s reference group hypothesis.
In summary, examining the evidence on sexual orientation, stress, and disorder, we find that sexual minorities have greater exposure to stress (Meyer, Schwartz, & Frost, 2008) and they have the expected resultant higher rates of disorder when compared with heterosexuals (King et al., 2008; Meyer, 2003). When we examine Savin-Williams et al.’s reference group hypothesis carefully in light of this evidence, we must refute it.
Finally, Savin-Williams et al. contend that their arguments “contribute to a growing call for depathologizing individuals who are not heterosexual.” I reject the implication that minority stress theory pathologizes LGB individuals. Minority stress theory positions the source of stress, and therefore mental health problems, as stemming from prevailing societal-level sexual stigma, prejudice, and discrimination and not a reflection of individual traits. Although some politically-motivated persons may use evidence that LGB individuals have a higher prevalence of disorder than heterosexuals to pathologize, stigmatize, and discriminate against LGB persons, such arguments are misguided as they defy logic. During the debates that led to the removal of homosexuality as a mental disorder from DSM-II in 1973, Marmor (1980) noted how illogical it is to associate findings about prevalence of pathology in the group with pathologizing the group itself:
…the basic issue…is not whether some or many homosexuals can be found to be neurotically disturbed. In a society like ours where homosexuals are uniformly treated with disparagement or contempt—to say nothing about outright hostility—it would be surprising indeed if substantial numbers of them did not suffer from an impaired self- image and some degree of unhappiness with their stigmatized status….It is manifestly unwarranted and inaccurate, however, to attribute such neuroticism, when it exists, to intrinsic aspects of homosexuality itself. (p. 400)
Minority stress theory points to pathogenic social conditions that stigmatize LGB people and treat them as inferior to heterosexuals. Even at the risk that research findings can be misused by some, studies on the psychiatric epidemiology of LGB individuals are important to help guide funding by governmental and other agencies and to direct research and prevention efforts.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors identify, examine, and discuss the unique challenges for lesbians who serve in leadership positions in corporate America and identify the pressures that are specific and unique for lesbians.
Abstract: Purpose – This paper seeks to identify, examine, and discuss the unique challenges for lesbians who serve in leadership positions in corporate America.Design/methodology/approach – Drawing upon a multi‐disciplinary framework of management, diversity, feminist, and leadership literature, the paper critically examines the myriad of pressures exerted upon all women in leadership positions, and then identifies the pressures that are specific and unique for lesbians.Findings – There are pressures that are unique for lesbian leaders. These pressures include negotiating the heterosexism of the organization; invisibility versus visibility, and gender expression and gender role expectations.Originality/value – The paper provides implications for human resource development to assume a stronger and more active role in uncovering tacit issues embedded in leadership so that organizational workplaces become locations of greater equity, access, and fairness for all who aspire to leadership positions.
01 Jan 2010
TL;DR: This paper examined whether levels of perceived incongruence with social work values and the perceived culture of a graduate social work program correlated with perceived bias in social work programs and the acceptance of social work.
Abstract: Using a sample of 124 incoming social work graduate students, we examined whether levels of perceived incongruence with social work values and the perceived culture of a graduate social work progra...
TL;DR: The most common responses to stressors reported by participants were finding support in relationships, engaging in coping responses, pursuing education and activism, rebellion and resistance, and avoidance and deferment.
Abstract: This article summarizes data from a qualitative study investigating the ways in which female youth perceive and respond to challenges related to the interplay of late adolescence and a minority sexual orientation. Fifteen sexual minority females in late adolescence were interviewed individually and in focus groups. The interviews focused on participants’ perceptions of challenges, the impact those stressors have in their lives, and methods they utilize to cope with them. The most common negative experiences reported were isolation, lack of acceptance, harassment, and violence. Sub-themes include: hearing negative messages about gender and sexual orientation, pressures to conform to a variety of cultural norms including gender norms, fears of future violence, and pressure to identify sexual orientation. Collectively, the participants described these negative consequences of experiences of heterosexism, sexism, and racism as their most difficult experiences. The most common responses to these stressors repo...
TL;DR: This article explored the various positive beliefs heterosexuals hold towards lesbians and gay men and the implication of these beliefs for heterosexuals' attitudes towards lesbians, and found that those participants with more favourable attitudes towards Gay men and lesbians were also more likely to see the gender transgression in gay and lesbian people.
Abstract: Two studies explored the various positive beliefs heterosexuals hold towards lesbians and gay men and the implication of these beliefs for heterosexuals' attitudes towards lesbians and gay men. In Study 1, 250 participants listed all the positive and negative things they had heard people say about gay men and lesbians. As expected, many of the negative beliefs participants reported were related to gender role transgression. Surprisingly, many of these transgressions were also found among the reported positive beliefs, suggesting that participants were also favourably evaluating gender transgression in gay and lesbian people. In Study 2, the relationship between a set of gender transgression-based positive beliefs and traditional heterosexism was assessed among 592 college undergraduates. Endorsement of these beliefs was found to correlate negatively with traditional heterosexism, suggesting that those participants with more favourable attitudes towards gay men and lesbians were also more likely to see the...
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors bring together an important collection of chapters that tackle homophobia, transphobia, and heterosexism in education and reveal strategies and stories supporting the struggles of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth, same-gender parented families, and their allies.
Abstract: In this diverse collection, editors Killoran and Pendleton Jimenez bring together an important collection of chapters that tackle homophobia, transphobia, and heterosexism. From the hallways and classrooms of elementary and secondary schools to the lecture halls of postsecondary institutions, Unleashing the Unpopular: Talking About Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity in Education reveals strategies and stories supporting the struggles of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth, same-gender parented families, and their allies.
TL;DR: This article argued that despite the gains in visibility and even in intimacy, The L Word articulates an ideology of avoidance whereby the underlying problems of heterosexism and homophobia are left unchallenged.
Abstract: The Showtime series The L Word (2004–2009) marked one of the first dramatized representations of prominent lesbian characters. While many popular culture scholars are focusing attention on the recent “gaying” of television narrative (e.g., Battles and Hilton-Morrow in Critical Studies in Media Communication 19: 87–105, 2002; Shugart in Text and Performance Quarterly 23: 30–54, 2003; Critical Studies in Media Communication 20: 67–91, 2003), far less attention is given to non-romantic interpersonal relationships surrounding main characters in these narratives. Sexuality scholarship notes that lesbian individuals must negotiate their self-disclosure to heterosexuals (Dindia in Dialectical approaches to studying personal relationships, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., Mahwah, NJ, 1998), and that this can be challenging for forming relationships and maintaining identity (Meyer in Communication Quarterly 51: 262–276, 2004). Ultimately, this essay argues that despite the gains in visibility and even in intimacy, The L Word articulates an ideology of avoidance whereby the underlying problems of heterosexism and homophobia are left unchallenged.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, sexual orientation and gender expression bias have a unique presentation in Black educational settings and the legacy of internalized racism as it impacts sexuality is examined in this article, along with recommendations for policy, practice and advocacy-based interventions.
Abstract: This article discusses sexual orientation and gender expression bias as they impact the educational experience of African American students. Sexual orientation and gender expression bias have a unique presentation in Black educational settings. The climate in such settings can be metagrobolized by the combination of distorted notions of Black sexuality and of homosexuality. The legacy of internalized racism as it impacts sexuality is examined in this article. Homophobia, heterosexism, and the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and questioning (LGBTQ) students are also discussed. Implications for school safety, academic achievement, and student mental health are elucidated along with recommendations for policy, practice and advocacy-based interventions. Keywords: gender expression bias, heterosexism, homophobia, sexual orientation OVERVIEW This article discusses sexual orientation and gender expression bias as they impact African American students. Although there is ample literature on anti-gay prejudice and gender bias as they impact educational settings in general (Espelage et al., 2008; O'Conor, 1993; Russell et al., 2009; Walter & Hayes, 1998), less attention has been given to these matters as they affect Black students. For that reason this article focuses on the experiences of African American students with regard to homophobia, heterosexism, and gender expression bias. Issues related to sexuality have an impact on the educational experience of Black students regardless of sexual orientation. Adolescence is a burgeoning period of libidinal development; therefore, the educational milieu cannot help but be impacted. According to the Centers for Disease Control Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS, Mohsen & West, 2006), 46.7% of high school students have sexual intercourse during their high school years and Black and Latino students engage in sexual activity at significantly higher rates than their white counterparts (Mohsen & West, 2006). Analyzing longitudinal data from the YRBSS, CavazosRehg and colleagues (2009) found that African American males experienced their sexual debut earlier than all other groups. In fact, 74% of African American females and 82% of African American males experienced their sexual commencement by age 17. Concomitantly, Black people accounted for 49% of the new HTV/AIDS diagnoses in the United States in 2005. The data show that of the 18,849 people under the age of 25 who were diagnosed between 2001 and 2004, 61% are Black (CDC, 2006). These data articulate that unprotected sex (heterosexual and non-heterosexual) is the principal means of transmission of the virus and thereby is a prominent cause for the disproportionate representation of Black youth among those infected. African Americans also have the highest teen pregnancy rates in the United States which significantly increases the likelihood that they will not complete high school (Mohsen & West, 2006). The neoteric uproar over "sexting" (Manzo, 2009; "Teen 'sexting' attracts attention," 2009), whereby students send each other sexually explicit texts or photographs using mobile telephone devices and over the Internet during school, is yet another tocsin indicating students' heightened sexuality in their learning environment. While students' preoccupation with sexuality and engagement in sexually risky behavior may create a distraction from the learning process, these also portend serious legal, psychosocial, and health consequences for Black youth. Distorted gender norms and gender bias also have influence on the education of Black students with varied manifestations. The emasculation of academic achievement among some Black males, especially in disciplines such as art, literature, and the social sciences, is one indicator (Bailey, 2002). Black female students' preoccupation with their appearance and sexual attractiveness more than their academic achievement also highlights the agency of sexism in perceived gender appropriate roles and behavior. …