Showing papers on "Poison control published in 1990"
TL;DR: Most often, the homogenization argument subspeciates into either an argument about Americanization, or anargument about "commoditization", and very often the two arguments are closely linked as discussed by the authors. But these arguments fail to consider that at least as rapidly as forces from various metropolises are brought into new societies they tend to become indigenized in one or other way.
Abstract: Most often, the homogenization argument subspeciates into either an argument about Americanization, or an argument about 'commoditization', and very often the two arguments are closely linked. What these arguments fail to consider is that at least as rapidly as forces from various metropolises are brought into new societies they tend to become indigenized in one or other way: this is true of music and housing styles as much as it is true of science and terrorism, spectacles and constitutions. The dynamics of such indigenization have just begun to be explored in a sophisticated manner
3,939 citations
TL;DR: Clinical sensitivity and a psychologically informed perspective on crime may assist in the renewed service, research, and conceptual efforts that are strongly indicated by the review.
Abstract: Careful reading of the literature on the psychology of criminal conduct and of prior reviews of studies of treatment effects suggests that neither criminal sanctioning without provision of rehabilitative service nor servicing without reference to clinical principles of rehabilitation will succeed in reducing recidivism. What works, in our view, is the delivery of appropriate correctional service, and appropriate service reflects three psychological principles: (1) delivery of service to higher risk cases, (2) targeting of criminogenic needs, and (3) use of styles and modes of treatment (e.g., cognitive and behavioral) that are matched with client need and learning styles. These principles were applied to studies of juvenile and adult correctional treatment, which yielded 154 phi coefficients that summarized the magnitude and direction of the impact of treatment on recidivism. The effect of appropriate correctional service (mean phi = .30) was significantly (p <.05) greater than that of unspecified correctional service (.13), and both were more effective than inappropriate service (−.06) and non-service criminal sanctioning (−.07). Service was effective within juvenile and adult corrections, in studies published before and after 1980, in randomized and nonrandomized designs, and in diversionary, community, and residential programs (albeit, attenuated in residential settings). Clinical sensitivity and a psychologically informed perspective on crime may assist in the renewed service, research, and conceptual efforts that are strongly indicated by our review.
1,973 citations
TL;DR: The Falls Efficacy Scale (FES) as mentioned in this paper is an instrument to measure fear of falling, based on the operational definition of this fear as "low perceived selfefficacy at avoiding falls during essential, nonhazardous activities of daily living." The reliability and validity of the FES were assessed in two samples of community living elderly persons.
Abstract: We developed the Falls Efficacy Scale (FES), an instrument to measure fear of falling, based on the operational definition of this fear as "low perceived self-efficacy at avoiding falls during essential, nonhazardous activities of daily living." The reliability and validity of the FES were assessed in two samples of community-living elderly persons. The FES showed good test-retest reliability (Pearson's correlation 0.71). Subjects who reported avoiding activities because of fear of falling had higher FES scores, representing lower self-efficacy or confidence, than subjects not reporting fear of falling. The independent predictors of FES score were usual walking pace (a measure of physical ability), anxiety, and depression. The FES appears to be a reliable and valid method for measuring fear of falling. This instrument may be useful in assessing the independent contribution of fear of falling to functional decline among elderly people.
1,860 citations
TL;DR: How alcohol makes social responses more extreme, enhances important self-evaluations, and relieves anxiety and depression, effects that underlie both the social destructiveness of alcohol and the reinforcing effects that make it an addictive substance are explained.
Abstract: This article explains how alcohol makes social responses more extreme, enhances important self-evaluations, and relieves anxiety and depression, effects that underlie both the social destructiveness of alcohol and the reinforcing effects that make it an addictive substance. The theories are based on alcohol's impairment of perception and thought--the myopia it causes--rather than on the ability of alcohol's pharmacology to directly cause specific reactions or on expectations associated with alcohol's use. Three conclusions are offered (a) Alcohol makes social behaviors more extreme by blocking a form of response conflict. (b) The same process can inflate self-evaluations. (c) Alcohol myopia, in combination with distracting activity, can reliably reduce anxiety and depression in all drinkers by making it difficult to allocate attention to the thoughts that provoke these states. These theories are discussed in terms of their significance for the prevention and treatment of alcohol abuse.
1,819 citations
TL;DR: An alternative cognitive model of drug use and drug urges is proposed that hypothesizes that drug use in the addict is controlled by automatized action schemata and is implications for the assessment of urge responding and drug-use behavior.
Abstract: Contemporary urge models assume that urges are necessary but not sufficient for the production of drug use in ongoing addicts, are responsible for the initiation of relapse in abstinent addicts, and can be indexed across 3 classes of behavior: verbal report, overt behavior, and somatovisceral response. A review of available data does not provide strong support for these assumptions. An alternative cognitive model of drug use and drug urges is proposed that hypothesizes that drug use in the addict is controlled by automatized action schemata. Urges are conceptualized as responses supported by nonautomatic cognitive processes activated in parallel with drug-use action schemata either in support of the schema or in support of attempts to block the execution of the schema. The implications of this model for the assessment of urge responding and drug-use behavior are presented.
1,784 citations
TL;DR: Higher rates of abuse were found among women who grew up in unhappy families, lived for some period without one of their natural parents, received inadequate sex education, were currently residing in the West or who were born after 1925.
1,767 citations
TL;DR: It is argued that behavioral differentiation of the sexes is minimal when children are observed or tested individually, and sex differences emerge primarily in social situations, and their nature varies with the gender composition of dyads and groups.
Abstract: This article argues that behavioral differentiation of the sexes is minimal when children are observed or tested individually Sex differences emerge primarily in social situations, and their nature varies with the gender composition of dyads and groups Children find same-sex play partners more compatible, and they segregate themselves into same-sex groups, in which distinctive interaction styles emerge These styles are described As children move into adolescence, the patterns they developed in their childhood same-sex groups are carried over into cross-sex encounters in which girls' styles put them at a disadvantage Patterns of mutual influence can become more symmetrical in intimate male-female dyads, but the distinctive styles of the two sexes can still be seen in such dyads and are subsequently manifested in the roles and relationships of parenthood The implications of these continuities are considered Language: en
1,758 citations
TL;DR: Results from a prospective study of a representative sample of 309 children indicated that physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known.
Abstract: Two questions concerning the effect of physical abuse in early childhood on the child's development of aggressive behavior are the focus of this article. The first is whether abuse per se has deleterious effects. In earlier studies, in which samples were nonrepresentative and family ecological factors (such as poverty, marital violence, and family instability) and child biological variables (such as early health problems and temperament) were ignored, findings have been ambiguous. Results from a prospective study of a representative sample of 309 children indicated that physical abuse is indeed a risk factor for later aggressive behavior even when the other ecological and biological factors are known. The second question concerns the processes by which antisocial development occurs in abused children. Abused children tended to acquire deviant patterns of processing social information, and these may mediate the development of aggressive behavior.
1,738 citations
TL;DR: Four principles of classification for effective rehabilitation are reviewed: risk, need, responsivity, and professional override.
Abstract: Four principles of classification for effective rehabilitation are reviewed: risk, need, responsivity, and professional override. Many examples of Case x Treatment interactions are presented to ill...
1,737 citations
TL;DR: Women were significantly more prone to harmless lapses than men, consistent with the view that errors and violations are indeed mediated by different psychological mechanisms.
Abstract: In considering the human contribution to accidents, it seems necessary to make a distinction between errors and violations; two forms of aberration which may have different psychological origins and demand different modes of remediation. The present study investigated whether this distinction was justified for self-reported driver behaviour. Five hundred and twenty drivers completed a driver behaviour questionnaire (DBQ) which asked them to judge the frequency with which they committed various types of errors and violations when driving. Three fairly robust factors were identified: violations, dangerous errors, and relatively harmless lapses, respectively. Violations declined with age, errors did not. Men of all ages reported more violations than women. Women, however, were significantly more prone to harmless lapses (or more honest) than men. These findings were consistent with the view that errors and violations are indeed mediated by different psychological mechanisms. Violations require explanation in terms of social and motivational factors, whereas errors (slips, lapses, and mistakes) may be accounted for by reference to the information-processing characteristics of the individual.
1,620 citations
TL;DR: Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness, a state of cognitive deconstruction that brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable.
Abstract: Suicide is analyzed in terms of motivations to escape from aversive self-awareness. The causal chain begins with events that fall severely short of standards and expectations. These failures are attributed internally, which makes self-awareness painful. Awareness of the self's inadequacies generates negative affect, and the individual therefore desires to escape from self-awareness and the associated affect. The person tries to achieve a state of cognitive deconstruction (constricted temporal focus, concrete thinking, immediate or proximal goals, cognitive rigidity, and rejection of meaning), which helps prevent meaningful self-awareness and emotion. The deconstructed state brings irrationality and disinhibition, making drastic measures seem acceptable. Suicide can be seen as an ultimate step in the effort to escape from self and world.
TL;DR: The hypothesis that abrupt visual onsets capture attention automatically, as suggested by Yantis and Jonides (1984) was tested in four experiments and showed that onsets do not necessarily capture attention in violation of an observer's intentions.
Abstract: The hypothesis that abrupt visual onsets capture attention automatically, as suggested by Yantis and Jonides (1984) was tested in four experiments. A centrally located cue directed attention to one of several stimulus positions in preparation for the identification of a target letter embedded in an array of distractor letters. In all experiments, one stimulus (either the target or one of the distractors) had an abrupt onset; the remaining letters did not. The effectiveness of the cue was manipulated (varying either its duration or its predictive validity) to test whether abrupt onsets capture attention even when subjects are in a highly focused attentional state. Results showed that onsets do not necessarily capture attention in violation of an observer's intentions. A mechanism for partially automatic attentional capture by abrupt onset is proposed, and the diagnosticity of the intentionality criterion for automaticity is discussed.
TL;DR: Data from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area survey were used to examine the relationship between violence and psychiatric disorders among adults living in the community, and a significant interaction effect was found between major mental illness and substance abuse.
Abstract: Data from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area survey were used to examine the relationship between violence and psychiatric disorders among adults living in the community. Psychiatric assessment of survey respondents was based on the Diagnostic Interview Schedule, which also provided self-report information about violent behavior. Those who reported violent behavior within the preceding year tended to be young, male, and of low socioeconomic status, and more than half met DSM-III criteria for one or more psychiatric disorders. Subjects with alcohol or drug use disorders were more than twice as likely as those with schizophrenia to report violent behavior. In a multivariate model of the predictors of violence, a significant interaction effect was found between major mental illness and substance abuse. The risk of violent behavior increased with the number of psychiatric diagnoses for which respondents met DSM-III criteria.
TL;DR: This phenomenon, which involves employees “ganging up” on a target employee and subjecting him or her to psychological harassment, results in severe psychological and occupational consequences for the victim.
Abstract: In recent years, the existence of a significant problem in workplaces has been documented in Sweden and other countries. It involves employees "ganging up" on a target employee and subjecting him or her to psychological harassment. This "mobbing" behavior results in severe psychological and occupational consequences for the victim. This phenomenon is described, its stages and consequences analyzed. An ongoing program of research and intervention that is currently being supported by the Swedish government is then considered.
TL;DR: The present work indicates that these two tendencies are not highly correlated and that they bear different relations both to other personality traits and to the manner in which certain basic cognitive processes are executed.
Abstract: The 3 studies reported here were designed to clarify the nature of the personality trait of impulsivity. Two types of impulsivity were distinguished. Dysfunctional impulsivity is the tendency to act with less forethought than most people of equal ability when this tendency is a source of difficulty; most previous work on impulsivity appears to have focused on this trait. Functional impulsivity, in contrast, is the tendency to act with relatively little forethought when such a style is optimal. The present work indicates that these two tendencies are not highly correlated and that they bear different relations both to other personality traits and to the manner in which certain basic cognitive processes are executed. Language: en
TL;DR: In this article, a baseline regression model using 11 structural covariates is estimated for cities, metropolitan areas, and states in 1960, 1970, and 1980, and the empirical estimates of this model exhibit instability because of high levels of collinearity among several regressors.
Abstract: This study demonstrate that the empirical literature on the structural convariates of homicide rates contains inconsistent findings across different time periods and different geographical units. This apparent variance of findings may be due to statistical or methodological artifacts of particular studies, such as different time periods covered, units of analysis, samples, model specification, and problems of statistical analysis and inference. A baseline regression model using 11 structural covariates is estimated for cities, metropolitan areas, and states in 1960, 1970, and 1980. The empirical estimates of this model exhibit instability because of high levels of collinearity among several regressors. Principal components analysis is applied to simplify the dimensionally of the structural covariate space. Reestimation of the regression model then indicates that the apparent inconsistencies across time and social space are greatly reduced. The theoretical significance of the findings for substantive theor...
TL;DR: The Major Trauma Outcome Study (MTOS) is a retrospective descriptive study of injury severity and outcome coordinated through the American College of Surgeons' Committee on Trauma from 1982 through 1987.
Abstract: The Major Trauma Outcome Study (MTOS) is a retrospective descriptive study of injury severity and outcome coordinated through the American College of Surgeons' Committee on Trauma. From 1982 through 1987, 139 North American hospitals submitted demographic, etiologic, injury severity, and outcome data for 80,544 trauma patients. Motor vehicle related injuries were most frequent (34.7%). Twenty-one per cent of patients had penetrating injuries. The overall mortality rate was 9.0%. The mortality rate for direct admissions was strongly related to the presence of serious head injury, 5.0% and 40.0%, when head injuries were less than or equal to AIS (Abbreviated Injury Scale) 3 or greater than or equal to AIS 4, respectively. Survival probability norms use the Revised Trauma Score, Injury Severity Score, patient age, and injury mechanism. Patients with unexpected outcomes were identified and statistical comparisons of actual and expected numbers of survivors made for each institution. Results provide a description of injury and outcome and support evaluation and quality assurance activities.
TL;DR: The concept of edgework highlights the most sociologically relevant features of voluntary risk taking, while the connections between various aspects of risk-taking behaviour and structural characteristic of modern American society at both the micro and macro levels as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: While there seems to be general agreement among members of contemporary American society about the value of reducing threats to individual well-being, there are may who actively seek experiences that involve a high potential for personal injury or death. High-risk sports such as hang gliding, skydiving, scuba diving, rock climbing, and the like have enjoyed unprecedented growth in the past several decades even as political institutions in Western societies have sought to reduce the risks of injury in the workplace and elsewhere. The contradiction between the public agenda to reduce the risk of injury and death and the private agenda to increase such risks deserves th attention of sociologists. A literature review is presented that points to a number of shortcomings in existing studies, most of which are associated with the psychological reductionism that predominates in this area of study. An effort is made to provide a sociological account of voluntary risk taking by (1) introducing a new classifying concept- edgework-based on numerous themes emerging from primary and secondary data on risk taking and (2) explaining edgework in terms of the newly emerging social psychological perspective produced from the synthesis of the Marxian and Meadian frameworks. The concept of edgework highlights the most sociologically relevant features of voluntary risk taking, while the connections between various aspects of risk-taking behaviour and structural characteristic of modern American society at both the micro and macro levels. This approach ties together such factors as political economic variables, at one end of the continuum, and individual sensations and feelings, at the other end.
TL;DR: The rationale and development of the COPM, an outcome measure designed for use by occupational therapists to assess client outcomes in the areas of self-care, productivity and leisure, are described.
Abstract: The Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists, in collaboration with Health and Welfare Canada have developed and published a conceptual model for occupational therapy, the Occupational Performance model. This paper describes the development of an outcome measure, The Canadian Occupational Performance Measure (COPM), which is designed to be used with these guidelines for client-centred clinical practice. The COPM is an outcome measure designed for use by occupational therapists to assess client outcomes in the areas of self-care, productivity and leisure. Using a semi-structured interview, the COPM is a five step process which measures individual, client-identified problem areas in daily function. Two scores, for performance and satisfaction with performance are obtained. This paper describes the rationale and development of the COPM as wellas information about its use for therapists.
TL;DR: In this article, the Gluecks' classic study of delinquent and non-delinquent males from childhood to age 32 was used to investigate the relationship between crime, alcohol abuse, general deviance, economic dependency, educational failure, unemployment, divorce and even charges in the military.
Abstract: Analyzing the natural histories of two samples of boys that differ dramatically in childhood delinquency, we test a model of crime and deviance over the life course. The first hypothesis is that childhood antisocial behavior predicts problems in adult development across a wide variety of dimensions. Second, we argue that social bonds in adulthood--to work and family--explain changes in crime and deviance over the life span. The longitudinal data were reconstructed from the Gluecks' classic study of delinquent and non-delinquent males from childhood to age 32. Childhood delinquency is linked to adult crime, alcohol abuse, general deviance, economic dependency, educational failure, unemployment, divorce, and even charges in the military. Despite this continuity, job stability and strong marital attachment in adulthood inhibit adult criminal and deviant behavior. The results support a model of informal social control that recognizes both stability and change in antisocial behavior over the life course. Language: en
TL;DR: In this paper, a prospective study of 1,958 outpatients found that hopelessness, as measured by the Beck Hopelessness Scale, was significantly related to eventual suicide, and a scale cutoff score of 9 or above identified 16 (94.2%) of the 17 patients who eventually committed suicide.
Abstract: A prospective study of 1,958 outpatients found that hopelessness, as measured by the Beck Hopelessness Scale, was significantly related to eventual suicide. A scale cutoff score of 9 or above identified 16 (94.2%) of the 17 patients who eventually committed suicide, thus replicating a previous study with hospitalized patients. The high-risk group identified by this cutoff score was 11 times more likely to commit suicide than the rest of the outpatients. The Beck Hopelessness Scale thus may be used as a sensitive indicator of suicide potential.
TL;DR: This article explored three possible accounts based on perceptual segregation, conjunction detectors, and inhibition controlled separately by two or more distractor features for conjunctions of color, size, orientation, and direction of motion.
Abstract: Search for conjunctions of highly discriminable features can be rapid or even parallel. This article explores three possible accounts based on (a) perceptual segregation, (b) conjunction detectors, and (c) inhibition controlled separately by two or more distractor features. Search rates for conjunctions of color, size, orientation, and direction of motion correlated closely with an independent measure of perceptual segregation. However, they appeared unrelated to the physiology of single-unit responses. Each dimension contributed additively to conjunction search rates, suggesting that each was checked independently of the others. Unknown targets appear to be found only by serial search for each in turn. Searching through 4 sets of distractors was slower than searching through 2. The results suggest a modification of feature integration theory, in which attention is controlled not only by a unitary "window" but also by a form of feature-based inhibition.
TL;DR: The EPDS identified all women with R DC major depression but was less effective in detecting those with RDC minor depression.
Abstract: One hundred women attending a maternity hospital antenatal clinic who were between 28 and 34 weeks gestation completed the EPDS and were then interviewed using a standardized psychiatric interview. EPDS scores were compared with RDC diagnosis of major and minor depression and with total weighted score derived from the interview. The EPDS identified all women with RDC major depression but was less effective in detecting those with RDC minor depression.
TL;DR: The authors studied 954 psychiatric patients with major affective disorders and found that nine clinical features were associated with suicide, drawing attention to the importance of standardized prospective data for studies of suicide, assessment of short-term suicide risk factors, and anxiety symptoms as modifiable Suicide risk factors within a clinically relevant period.
Abstract: The authors studied 954 psychiatric patients with major affective disorders and found that nine clinical features were associated with suicide. Six of these--panic attacks, severe psychic anxiety, diminished concentration, global insomnia, moderate alcohol abuse, and severe loss of interest or pleasure (anhedonia)--were associated with suicide within 1 year, and three others--severe hopelessness, suicidal ideation, and history of previous suicide attempts--were associated with suicide occurring after 1 year. These findings draw attention to the importance of 1) standardized prospective data for studies of suicide, 2) assessment of short-term suicide risk factors, and 3) anxiety symptoms as modifiable suicide risk factors within a clinically relevant period.
TL;DR: It is found that a history of sexual and physical abuse is a frequent, yet hidden, experience in women seen in referral-based gastroenterology practice and is particularly common in those with functional gastrointestinal disorders.
Abstract: This study aims to determine the prevalence of sexual and physical abuse among women seen in a gastroenterology clinic. A total of 206 patients, who completed a self-administered questionnaire, were included in the analysis. Results indicated that 89 patients (44%) reported a history of sexual abuse or physical abuse in childhood or later in life; and all except one of the physically abused were also sexually abused. Among them, only 17% had informed their doctors about the abuse. Moreover, the 75 patients (36%) with functional gastrointestinal disorders were more likely than those with organic disease diagnosis to report a history of forced intercourse, frequent physical abuse, chronic or recurrent abdominal pain, and more lifetime surgeries. They were also more likely to be receiving psychological counseling for emotional concerns. Furthermore, abused patients were more likely than nonabused patients to report pelvic pain, multiple somatic symptoms, and more lifetime surgeries. In conclusion, this study discovered that there is a high prevalence of a history of sexual and physical abuse among women seen in a referral-based gastroenterology clinic, particularly those with functional gastrointestinal disorders. Language: en
TL;DR: Subjects with a history of childhood abuse reported higher levels of dissociative symptoms than those who did not, and patients with histories of abuse had scores at or above the median score of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder.
Abstract: Studies have reported high rates of childhood abuse in people with psychiatric illness. This study examined whether dissociative symptoms are specific to patients with histories of abuse. Ninety-eight female psychiatric inpatients completed self-report instruments that focused on childhood history of trauma, dissociative symptoms, and psychiatric symptoms in general. Sixty-three percent of the subjects reported physical and/or sexual abuse. Eighty-three percent had dissociative symptom scores above the median score of normal adults, and 24% had scores at or above the median score of patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Subjects with a history of childhood abuse reported higher levels of dissociative symptoms than those who did not.
TL;DR: The authors proposed a cognitive-neo-associationistic model to account for the effects of negative affect on the development of angry feelings and the display of emotional aggression, which can integrate the core aspect of the James-Lange theory with newer cognitive theories of emotion.
Abstract: Noting that a wide variety of unpleasant feelings, including sadness and depression, apparently can give rise to anger and aggression, I propose a cognitive-neoassociationistic model to account for the effects of negative affect on the development of angry feelings and the display of emotional aggression. Negative affect tends to activate ideas, memories, and expressive-motor reactions associated with anger and aggression as well as rudimentary angry feelings. Subsequent thought involving attributions, appraisals, and schematic conceptions can then intensify, suppress, enrich, or differentiate the initial reactions. Bodily reactions as well as emotion-relevant thoughts can activate the other components of the particular emotion network to which they are linked. Research findings consistent with the model are summarized. Experimental findings are also reported indicating that attention to one's negative feelings can lead to a regulation of the overt effects of the negative affect, I argue that the model can integrate the core aspect of the James-Lange theory with the newer cognitive theories of emotion. Language: en
TL;DR: A longitudinal analysis of the behavior of a birth cohort of 435 boys found that persistence of criminal offending beyond adolescence is predicted for the ADD + delinquent boys.
Abstract: This article describes a longitudinal analysis of the behavior of a birth cohort of 435 boys. 4 groups were defined at age 13 on the basis of both self-reported delinquent behavior and professional diagnosis of Attention Deficit Disorder: ADD + delinquent, ADD only, delinquent only, and nondisordered. Biennial correlates of delinquency (antisocial behavior problems, verbal intelligence, reading difficulty, and family adversity) were traced across childhood. The ADD + delinquent boys consistently fared the worst on the assessments of family adversity, verbal intelligence, and reading. Their antisocial behavior began before school age, escalated at school entry, and persisted into adolescence. The ADD-only boys had normal family, intelligence, and reading scores, and showed only mild antisocial behavior in middle childhood. The delinquent-only boys showed no early risk from family, low intelligence, or reading deficit, and remained relatively free of conduct problems until they initiated delinquency at age 13. Persistence of criminal offending beyond adolescence is predicted for the ADD + delinquent boys.
TL;DR: Two commonly used approaches to analyzing repeated measures designs are considered and it is argued that both approaches use inappropriate error terms for testing the effects of independent variables.
Abstract: Repeated measures designs involving nonorthogonal variables are being used with increasing frequency in cognitive psychology. Researchers usually analyze the data from such designs inappropriately, probably because the designs are not discussed in standard textbooks on regression. Two commonly used approaches to analyzing repeated measures designs are considered in this article. It is argued that both approaches use inappropriate error terms for testing the effects of independent variables. A more appropriate analysis is presented, and two alternative computational procedures for the analysis are illustrated.
TL;DR: In this work, explicit formulations of the evolutionary functions of specific emotions are of practical importance for understanding and treating emotional disorders.
Abstract: Emotions can be explained as specialized states, shaped by natural selection, that increase fitness in specific situations. The physiological, psychological, and behavioral characteristics of a specific emotion can be analyzed as possible design features that increase the ability to cope with the threats and opportunities present in the corresponding situation. This approach to understanding the evolutionary functions of emotions is illustrated by the correspondence between (a) the subtypes of fear and the different kinds of threat; (b) the attributes of happiness and sadness and the changes that would be advantageous in propitious and unpropitious situations; and (c) the social emotions and the adaptive challenges of reciprocity relationships. In addition to addressing a core theoretical problem shared by evolutionary and cognitive psychology, explicit formulations of the evolutionary functions of specific emotions are of practical importance for understanding and treating emotional disorders.