Showing papers on "Reciprocity (social psychology) published in 1998"

A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action: Presidential Address, American Political Science Association, 1997

Abstract: Extensive empirical evidence and theoretical developments in multiple disciplines stimulate a need to expand the range of rational choice models to be used as a foundation for the study of social dilemmas and collective action. After an introduction to the problem of overcoming social dilemmas through collective action, the remainder of this article is divided into six sections. The first briefly reviews the theoretical predictions of currently accepted rational choice theory related to social dilemmas. The second section summarizes the challenges to the sole reliance on a complete model of rationality presented by extensive experimental research. In the third section, I discuss two major empirical findings that begin to show how individuals achieve results that are “better than rational” by building conditions where reciprocity, reputation, and trust can help to overcome the strong temptations of short-run self-interest. The fourth section raises the possibility of developing second-generation models of rationality, the fifth section develops an initial theoretical scenario, and the final section concludes by examining the implications of placing reciprocity, reputation, and trust at the core of an empirically tested, behavioral theory of collective action.

Competitive altruism: from reciprocity to the handicap principle

Abstract: Current work on cooperation is focused on the theory of reciprocal altruism. However, reciprocity is just one way of getting a return on an investment in altruism and is difficult to apply to many examples. Reciprocity theory addresses how animals respond dynamically to others so as to cooperate without being exploited. I discuss how introducing differences in individual generosity together with partner choice into models of reciprocity can lead to an escalation in altruistic behaviour. Individuals may compete for the most altruistic partners and non-altruists may become ostracized. I refer to this phenomenon as competitive altruism and propose that it can represent a move away from the dynamic responsiveness of reciprocity. Altruism may be rewarded in kind, but rewards may be indirectly accrued or may not involve the return of altruism at all, for example if altruists tend to be chosen as mates. This variety makes the idea of competitive altruism relevant to behaviours which cannot be explained by reciprocity. I consider whether altruism might act as a signal of quality, as proposed by the handicap principle. I suggest that altruistic acts could make particularly effective signals because of the inherent benefits to receivers. I consider how reciprocity and competitive altruism are related and how they may be distinguished.

Trust within reason

Abstract: Some philosophers hold that trust grows fragile when people become too rational. They advocate a retreat from reason and a return to local, traditional values. Others hold that truly rational people are both trusting and trustworthy. Everything hinges on what we mean by 'reason' and 'rational'. If these are understood in an egocentric, instrumental fashion, then they are indeed incompatible with trust. With the help of game theory, Martin Hollis argues against that narrow definition and in favour of a richer, deeper notion of reason founded on reciprocity and the pursuit of the common good. Within that framework he reconstructs the Enlightenment idea of citizens of the world, rationally encountering, and at the same time finding their identity in, their multiple commitments to communities both local and universal.

Measuring Motivations for the Reciprocal Responses Observed in a Simple Dilemma Game

Abstract: A reciprocal action is an action meant to have a similar influence on another's payoff as another's action has on one's own. One hypothesis asserts that reciprocal action is triggered by the reciprocator's belief that another's action was good or ill intended. The other hypothesis says that the reciprocator is simply acting to implement fixed preferences over payoff allocations. We report on an experiment that allows us to study both positive (reward) and negative (punishment) reciprocal action in a single framework. Knowing the preferences for payoff allocations is sufficient to account for nearly all the reciprocal action we observe in our experiment.

Reciprocity in Ancient Greece

Abstract: In this collection of new essays, an international group of experts explores the significance of reciprocity (the principle and practice of voluntary requital, of benefit for benefit or harm for harm) in ancient Greek culture. Reciprocity has been seen as an important notion for anthropologists studying economic and social relations. A key question has been whether reciprocity constitutes an alternative pattern to the commercial, political, and ethical relationships characteristic of modern Western society. This volume takes the question forward in connection with Greek culture from Homer to the Hellenistic period. Building on previous research on this topic (especially on Homeric society), it provides a wide-ranging examination of reciprocity inGreek epic and drama, historiography, oratory, religion, and ethical philosophy. It asks fundamental questions about the importance of reciprocity in different phases of Greek history, the interplay between reciprocity and the ideology of Athenian democracy, and between reciprocity and altruism in ethical thought. Clear and non-technical, with all Greek translated, this volume will make debate on this important subject available to a wide circle of readers in classical, literary, anthropological, and historical studies.

On constructing trust: temporality, self‐disclosure, and perspective‐taking

Abstract: Surveys students of sociology classes at a small college in the Northeastern USA to examine the process through which people construct trust in their interpersonal lives, focusing on friendship and love relationships. Refers to previous research into trust, in an attempt to define it satisfactorily. Describes the process by which a trust relationship is established and earned, noting that time and sychronicity form the basis of developing shared experiences. Discusses self‐disclosure, reciprocity, roles and perspective. Considers the implications of trust in the realm of clinical sociology, claiming that research into trust is crucial to understand and help those individuals who have difficulty in maintaining interpersonal relationships.

Reciprocity in Two Conditions of Service-Learning.

Abstract: Service‐learning as a pedagogy is gaining attention as evidenced both by increased frequency of use and growing volumes of research. Published works have included program descriptions and the elaboration of theoretical underpinnings. These works, although varied in nature, have in common a call for attention to the establishment of reciprocity of benefit considering service‐learning students and service recipients. This qualitative study examined the effects of two service‐learning experiences: one group of students visited older adults in nursing homes; the other interacted with individuals with disabilities in community settings. Awareness of reciprocity of benefit from service‐learning was established in students and their companions, although differences were apparent in both benefits perceived and parties responsible considering students and service recipients in the two groups.

The evolution of fairness norms

Abstract: The evidence is strong that modern hunter-gatherer societies approximate the Marxian ideal in which each contributes according to ability and receives according to need. It has been argued that such a form of social organization can be explained by neither reciprocity nor kinship. Attempts to found evolutionary social contract theories on sociobiological principles therefore seem doomed from the outset, since the same authors believe that modern foraging societies preserve in fossil form the type of social contract from which all later social contracts evolved. This paper outlines the importance of the issue to my own social contract theory. It then uses game-theoretic arguments to argue that reciprocity and kinship are actually the twin pillars that maintain the quasi-utilitarian social contracts of modern hunter-gatherer societies. Finally, the idea that modern foragers have social contracts similar to their prehistoric ancestors is questioned.

Subjective norms toward social support among Japanese American elderly in New York City: Why help does not always help

Abstract: This study investigated the interaction effects between social support and subjective norms toward mobilizing and reciprocating social support on the psychological well-being among Japanese American elderly. A sample of 111 Japanese American elderly (mean age: 74 years) who resided in the New York City metropolitan area were interviewed using a structured survey questionnaire. The study revealed several significant interaction effects between norms and social support. Japanese American elderly who had strong norms toward reciprocating support did not receive the full benefit of social support because of the negative impact of norms of reciprocity. Elderly who had received material support from family and had strong norms toward reciprocity were more depressed, showed more symptoms of aging, and were less satisfied with their lives than those elderly who did not have strong norms of reciprocity. These findings suggest that cultural norms toward mobilizing certain types and sources of social support, and norms toward reciprocity of social support must be considered when investigating social support. Interventions to increase social support may have a negative effect on psychological well-being when recipients have strong norms toward reciprocating the support, but lack resources to do so. Future research is needed to identify effective strategies to change norms to maximize the effect of social support, particularly among elderly whose financial resources and social networks are limited. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Interdisciplinarity, the Psychology of Art, and Creativity: An Introduction

Abstract: The concept of interdisciplinarity is introduced within its larger intellectual context, that of the relation between science and the humanities, as well as related to psychology and, in particular, the psychology of art and creativity. Empirical research on the arts and creativity is in a good position to further interdisciplinarity, but I argue that such studies are insufficiently reciprocal. Psychology takes more from the arts (e.g., its materials) than it gives back. (i.e., illuminating scholarly and artistic concerns). I argue that, if the scientific psychology of art is to become fully interdisciplinary, it has to take greater account of artistic sensibilities and expertise. Suggestions for achieving greater reciprocity are offered. Examples from my research on an old age, art, and creativity (e.g., the "old-age style") are used to illustrate an interdisciplinary, among others, are discussed in the articles that follow mine in this Special issue of Creativity Research Journal, along with empirical a...

Social Order in Artificial Worlds.

Abstract: How does social order emerge among autonomous but interdependent agents? The expectation of future interaction may explain cooperation based on rational foresight, but the "shadow of the future" offers little leverage on the problem of social order in "everyday life" -- the habits of association that generate unthinking compliance with social norms. Everyday cooperation emerges not from the shadow of the future but from the lessons of the past. Rule-based evolutionary models are a promising way to formalize this process. These models may provide new insights into emergent social order -- not only prudent reciprocity, but also expressive and ritual self-sacrifice for the welfare of close cultural relatives.

Contrasting legal conceptions of family obligation and financial reciprocity in the support of older people: France and England

Abstract: This paper explores the way family obligation and reciprocity are defined in law in France and England. Focusing on the areas of inheritance and financial support in relation to older people, it explores how these are contrasted and linked in the two societies. In France, families are legally obliged to support their kin through obligation alimentaire, but inheritance is secured by law within the family. In England by contrast there is no such legal obligation to support older relatives; nor is there any constraint on inheritance: testamentary freedom is the legal principle. The paper discusses the significance of these differences and assesses how far they are modified by the operation of the welfare state and by embedded assumptions about family relations. It sets the differences within the context of different discourses of law and social policy in the two countries.

Reconsidering action research as a guiding metaphor for professional psychology

Abstract: Action research is proposed as a more appropriate guiding metaphor for inquiry in professional psychology than applied research as traditionally conceived and practiced. Institutional, social, and ideological factors that affect the research practices of psychologists are considered in the context of contemporary knowledge production. The history of action research and its justification with a pragmatist epistemology are given. Its value in promoting a culture of inquiry based on collaborative norms and the reciprocity of theory and practice is argued. Specific characteristics of action research are explained and illustrated with examples from diverse areas of professional psychology. Implications for professional knowledge, research, training, and practice are discussed. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Reciprocities and realities: World views, peacefulness, and violence among Semai and Waorani

Abstract: Implicit in all social relations, including those involving material transactions, are conceptions of reality that include fundamental assumptions about the nature of human beings, the relationships among them, and the world around them. This article examines economic exchange and reciprocity in two societies that are very similar in their ecological contexts, modes of subsistence, technologies, and social organizations but at opposite extremes in their attitudes toward violence. They are the Semai of Malaysia, one of the most peaceful societies known, and the Waorani of Amazonian Ecuador, the most violent society yet described. Comparison of the norms of exchange in these two societies reveals two very different views of the world: The Semai see themselves as helpless in a hostile world that is beyond their control and the Waorani see themselves as self-reliant and capable in a world that they feel fully competent to control. Understanding these culturally constructed realities as they are embodied in Semai and Waorani exchange (and in other areas of life as well, of course) contributes to an understanding of the character of sociality generally in these two societies, including their diametrically opposed dispositions toward violence in human relations.

Reciprocity Research and Its Implications for the Negotiation Process

Abstract: While social scientists have discussed the issue of reciprocation for many years, much of current behavioral research stems from Robert Axelrod's computer simulations of behavioral strategies in prisoner's dilemma games. Axelrod showed that a tit-for-tat strategy – cooperate on the first trial, and thereafter behave as your opponent did on the previous trial – earned a higher average payoff than any other tested strategy. We review both the computer simulation and empirical research that followed his studies. We suggest that it would be fruitful to extend this research to the negotiation paradigm, for two reasons: (1) many of the findings have direct bearing on elements of the negotiation process, and (2) there are unique aspects of the negotiation process that pose interesting questions for social dilemma research.

The Relationship of Reciprocity to Self Health Care in Older Women

Abstract: According to Social Exchange Theory, reciprocity in relationships is essential to functioning within the social context and is an important component in well-being as people age. Because of a potential relationship to meaning in life and hence to self health behaviors this study addressed: (1) Does reciprocity relate to self health care and (2) does reciprocity contribute to the explanation of self health care within a model including functional status, satisfaction with social support, and sense of meaning in life? Data were collected from 69 community dwelling women aged 65 to 99. Analysis indicated general health perception, support provided to others and sense of meaning in life were significant predictors of self health care.

Language, network centrality, and response to crisis in on-line life : A case study on the Italian cyber―punk computer conference

Abstract: The unobtrusive application of some techniques of research (namely, network analysis and content analysis) permits us to quantitatively identify some aspects of the social ''climate'' and context which govern a particular group of people interacting with each other through computers: the Italian cyber punk computer conference has been analyzed over a period of 19 months, through a succession of crises and moments of renewal. Monthly variations in the network measurements observed (density, reciprocity of links, etc.) may be taken as a ''barometer'' of the social liveliness of the conference. The analysis of the lexicon used in the messages reveals the presence of an underlying ''analogical'' linguistic component and of strategies for the construction of one's own social presence despite the seemingly limited possibilities of expression offered by the net. Used together, both techniques describe the expectations related to the roles of newcomer or leader. Conclusions include: a) a proposed framework to exp...

THE WRONGS OF RECIPROCITY Fieldwork among Chilean Working-Class Women

Abstract: Reciprocity, or the “giving back” by the researcher to the subjects of the research in the fieldwork situation, is not often mentioned by the authors of fieldwork methodologies or ethnographies. When it is mentioned, the pitfalls that can accompany it are rarely examined, and it is usually presented as an unequivocally desirable practice. From experiences with reciprocity during fieldwork with women who make the art form known as the arpillera in Chile, the author concludes that reciprocity can be a source of insight and improved relations, but it can also cause problems for the subjects and the research. Far from unambiguously positive, reciprocity can prove a potential minefield because of the ever-changing membership status of the researcher in the group and because of differences in power, knowledge, and culture between the researcher and the researched.

Fairness and self-interest: An assessment

Abstract: This paper provides an assessment of some fairness notions that are particularly relevant to economics of the marketplace. Motivations of fairness are also discussed. In this vein, three sources of fairness are outlined: moral precepts, stable convention, and reciprocity. Some suitable theoretical and empirical evidence are presented in support of these views. Economic models based on the view that man is purely selfish have performed poorly in some areas, particularly game theory and voluntary contributions to public goods. In other social sciences, notably in psychology, political science, and sociobiology researchers have also encountered systematic deviations from purely selfish behavior. There is ample evidence that both fairness and self-interest matter. It is hoped that this paper will provide a better comprehension of the tensions and complementarities between fairness and self-interest and improve our understanding of human behavior.

Civil society, social capital and the Twelve Step group

Abstract: This article examines the nature of community and family by using the concept of civil society through a Twelve Step group called Al-Anon. Al-Anon is related to Alcoholics Anonymous and is a support group for families of alcoholics. The concept of civil society is addressed by looking at its development in political philosophy and sociology. The work of Putnam, in particular, is used to understand how civil society and the associations which make it up develop social capital [Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy, Princeton University Press (1993); Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65–78 (1995); The Responsive Community, 5(2), 18–33 (1995)]. Social capital is understood to be norms and values such as trust and reciprocity that enable sociability or social connectedness. Community, then, embodies these norms of trust and reciprocity through their development in Al-Anon. Al-Anon is studied as an example of an association in civil society. The data come from an ethnographic study in Aust...

Promoting Intergenerational Strategies: The Role of the Corporation for National Service

Abstract: A catalyst for corporations, foundations, and community groups. The United States has always relied on the generosity and commitment of its citizens to meet its challenges. Today millions of Americans volunteer every day, tutoring children, helping communities recover from natural disasters, restoring parks, and doing many other things to improve lives and bring people together. Tapping citizen power will be even more important as we enter a new century and a new era of limited government. Just because government is being reduced, it does not mean our problems are going away. Indeed, many of the problems facing our nation-from crime and drugs to illiteracy and homelessness-- are mounting. To meet these challenges, we need to unleash the greatest power our country has-the energy and idealism of our people. Above all, we must tap the power of 6o million Americans over age 55, who bring to service what no other age group can-a lifetime of skills and experience as workers, parents, grandparents, and citizens. The Corporation for National Service, through the programs of the National Senior Service Corps, Learn and Serve America, and AmeriCorps, is working with thousands of nonprofit partners to strengthen the voluntary sector and unleash citizen power. Created in I993 with bipartisan support from Congress, the president, and community groups nationwide, the corporation now engages more than a million Americans in results-driven service. Our mission is to "provide opportunities for Americans of all ages and backgrounds to engage in service that addresses the nation's educational, public safety, environmental, and other human needs to achieve direct and demonstrable results and to encourage all Americans to engage in such service" (U.S. Congress, I993). Taken together, the corporation's programs constitute an extensive structure that can help intergenerational approaches expand and flourish. To generate citizen service on the scale needed, the corporation and its programs are designed as a catalyst for unleashing action from corporations, foundations, and community groups. By its very design, such service is intergenerational. Service provides an avenue for people of all ages to contribute, strengthens ties among diverse individuals and groups, and expands individual definitions of citizenship and responsibility. Reciprocity, a central tenant of intergenerational activities, is present and reinforced in national service programs across the country. People of all ages are potential givers and receivers of service. In the majority of cases, there is a direct reciprocal exchange among the primary constituencies, such as young people providing companionship and doing chores for older adults, while at the same time discovering the benefits of learning from their elders. Older people in the Foster Grandparents program, for example, tutor children in reading, comfort hospitalized children, help adolescent mothers learn parenting skills, and encourage incarcerated young offenders to get their lives back on track. In return, Foster Grandparents report that they receive as much as they give, in the form of new purposes in later life, new skills, and new opportunities to contribute to the wellbeing of individual children and young people. A less well-known but promising intergenerational model encourages young and old participants to serve side by side to address unmet needs in their communities. For example, participants may join forces to prepare meals in a homeless shelter, adopt and clean up a riverbed, or coordinate a book drive for early readers in poorly funded schools. Service becomes both a vehicle and a catalyst to establish and strengthen relationships among those involved and helps to export the benefits to a wider societal context. A notable new example is the plan of Big Brothers/Big Sisters to ask all "bigs" and "littles" to work together in community service projects, as part of being Big Brothers and Big Sisters. …

A Theory of Fairness, Competition and Cooperation

Abstract: There is strong evidence that people exploit their bargaining power in competitive markets but not in bilateral bargaining situations. There is also strong evidence that people exploit free-riding opportunities in voluntary cooperation games. Yet, when they are given the opportunity to punish free riders, stable cooperation is maintained although punishment is costly for those who punish. This paper asks whether there is a simple common principle that can explain this puzzling evidence. We show that if a fraction of the people exhibits inequality aversion the puzzles can be resolved.

Motives for Investment in Human Capital of Children: Evidence from Indonesian Family Life Survey Data

Abstract: Two alternative models of parental investments in children's human capital are considered and tested empirically using the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS). The pure loan model and the reciprocity with two-sided altruism model yield different predictions about the effect of children's education level and number of children on intergenerational transfers. Using these predictions, a sepcification test is carried out to differentiate these two models with the data. The evidence favors the second model of reciprocity with two-sided altruism.

Political Obligation and the United States Supreme Court

Abstract: We inquire into reasons given by the United States Supreme Court to explain political obligations, in order to assess different theories of political obligation that are currently advanced. The justices have most often grounded moral requirements to obey the law on protection individuals receive from society. The most likely bases of these "reciprocal obligations" are an idea of reciprocity as itself a binding moral notion and, more specifically, the principle of fairness. Although the evidence is somewhat unclear, on balance, it supports the more specific fairness interpretation.

Reciprocity in Recurring Crises

Abstract: Reciprocal behavior is understood as responses in kind and magnitude to both positive and/or negative actions. Four propositions that attempt to explain the presence of reciprocal behavior in interstate conflict are examined: (1) adherence by states to a norm of reciprocity, (2) Dupreel's theorem that as rivalries mature, states are more and more likely to imitate each other's behavior, (3) locking-in to escalating conflictual actions in a conflict spiral, and (4) the use of Reciprocating influence strategies, based on tit-for-tat, to elicit cooperation. The propositions are examined in 12 recurring militarized crises within the post-World War II rivalries of the United States and Soviet Union, India and Pakistan, and Israel and Egypt. The analysis employs events data from the BCOW data set, along with qualitative analyses of individual crises. The findings provide indirect support for the influence of the reciprocity norm, even within highly contentious situations. No evidence is found to support Dupreel's proposition. The presence of a true conflict spiral appears in only one of the 12 crises. The effectiveness of Reciprocating influence strategies receives support consistent with that found in other studies of influence strategies in militarized crises.

Building Reciprocal Relationships in the Student Teaching Practicum

Abstract: This research study reports on the collaborative effort of university supervisors and pairs of cooperating and student teachers of Spanish. The cohort collaboratively designed experiences, responsibilities, and concessions for student teachers to facilitate the development of reciprocal relationships. The study identifies elements that enhanced or hindered reciprocity in the teaching relationship. This report emphasizes the responsibility each member of the cooperating teacher-student teacher pair has to cultivate reciprocity. It concludes with a discussion of how teacher educators can promote the success of the student teaching experience and with suggestions for future research in foreign language teacher development.