Showing papers on "Situation awareness published in 2004"

The effects of level of automation and adaptive automation on human performance, situation awareness and workload in a dynamic control task

Abstract: This paper extends previous research on two approaches to human-centred automation: (1) intermediate levels of automation (LOAs) for maintaining operator involvement in complex systems control and facilitating situation awareness; and (2) adaptive automation (AA) for managing operator workload through dynamic control allocations between the human and machine over time. Some empirical research has been conducted to examine LOA and AA independently, with the objective of detailing a theory of human-centred automation. Unfortunately, no previous work has studied the interaction of these two approaches, nor has any research attempted to systematically determine which LOAs should be used in adaptive systems and how certain types of dynamic function allocations should be scheduled over time. The present research briefly reviews the theory of human-centred automation and LOA and AA approaches. Building on this background, an initial study was presented that attempts to address the conjuncture of these two approa...

Human-robot interaction in rescue robotics

Abstract: Rescue robotics has been suggested by a recent DARPA/NSF study as an application domain for the research in human-robot integration (HRI). This paper provides a short tutorial on how robots are currently used in urban search and rescue (USAR) and discusses the HRI issues encountered over the past eight years. A domain theory of the search activity is formulated. The domain theory consists of two parts: 1) a workflow model identifying the major tasks, actions, and roles in robot-assisted search (e.g., a workflow model) and 2) a general information flow model of how data from the robot is fused by various team members into information and knowledge. The information flow model also captures the types of situation awareness needed by each agent in the rescue robot system. The article presents a synopsis of the major HRI issues in reducing the number of humans it takes to control a robot, maintaining performance with geographically distributed teams with intermittent communications, and encouraging acceptance within the existing social structure.

Emergency response personnel automated accountability system

Abstract: An emergency response personnel automated accountability system, also referred to as a Firefighter Automated Accountability System (FAAS), is provided that supports automatic tracking of and limited communications among first responders including fire, police, emergency medical service, and safety personnel. The FAAS increases situational awareness and safety of first responder personnel by automatically providing position information as well as other sensor information. Components of the FAAS integrate wireless mesh networks with positioning and communication systems to support real-time tracking of and communications with emergency response personnel. The FAAS incident awareness system provides position and time information via Global Positioning System (GPS) and/or other positioning systems, and processed data from sensors to provide enhanced communications, command and control capabilities to the first responders and incident command at the incident scene.

NVisionIP: netflow visualizations of system state for security situational awareness

Abstract: The number of attacks against large computer systems is currently growing at a rapid pace. Despite the best efforts of security analysts, large organizations are having trouble keeping on top of the current state of their networks. In this paper, we describe a tool called NVisionIP that is designed to increase the security analyst's situational awareness. As humans are inherently visual beings, NVisionIP uses a graphical representation of a class-B network to allow analysts to quickly visualize the current state of their network. We present an overview of NVisionIP along with a discussion of various types of security-related scenarios that it can be used to detect.

Objective measures of situation awareness in a simulated medical environment

Abstract: One major limitation in the use of human patient simulators is a lack of objective, validated measures of human performance. Objective measures are necessary if simulators are to be used to evaluate the skills and training of medical practitioners and teams or to evaluate the impact of new processes or equipment design on overall system performance. Situation awareness (SA) refers to a person's perception and understanding of their dynamic environment. This awareness and comprehension is critical in making correct decisions that ultimately lead to correct actions in medical care settings. An objective measure of SA may be more sensitive and diagnostic than traditional performance measures. This paper reviews a theory of SA and discusses the methods required for developing an objective measure of SA within the context of a simulated medical environment. Analysis and interpretation of SA data for both individual and team performance in health care are also presented.

Moonlight in Miami: a field study of human-robot interaction in the context of an urban search and rescue disaster response training exercise

Abstract: This article explores human-robot interaction during a 16-hr, high-fidelity urban search and rescue disaster response drill with teleoperated robots. This article examines operator situation awareness and technical search team interaction using communication analysis. It analyzes situation awareness, team communication, and the interaction of these constructs using a systematic coding scheme designed for this research. The findings indicate that operators spent significantly more time gathering information about the state of the robot and the state of the environment than they did navigating the robot. Operators had difficulty integrating the robot's view into their understanding of the search and rescue site. They compensated for this lack of situation awareness by communicating with team members at the site, attempting to gather information that would provide a more complete mental model of the site. They also worked with team members to develop search strategies. The article concludes with suggestions for design and future research.

VisFlowConnect: netflow visualizations of link relationships for security situational awareness

Abstract: We present a visualization design to enhance the ability of an administrator to detect and investigate anomalous traffic between a local network and external domains. Central to the design is a parallel axes view which displays NetFlow records as links between two machines or domains while employing a variety of visual cues to assist the user. We describe several filtering options that can be employed to hide uninteresting or innocuous traffic such that the user can focus his or her attention on the more unusual network flows.This design is implemented in the form of VisFlowConnect, a prototype application which we used to study the effectiveness of our visualization approach. Using VisFlowConnect, we were able to discover a variety of interesting network traffic patterns. Some of these were harmless, normal behavior, but some were malicious attacks against machines on the network.

Automation Bias in Intelligent Time Critical Decision Support Systems

Abstract: Various levels of automation can be introduced by intelligent decision support systems, from fully automated, where the operator is completely left out of the decision process, to minimal levels of automation, where the automation only makes recommendations and the operator has the final say. For rigid tasks that require no flexibility in decision-making and with a low probability of system failure, higher levels of automation often provide the best solution. However, in time critical environments with many external and changing constraints such as air traffic control and military command and control operations, higher levels of automation are not advisable because of the risks and the complexity of both the system and the inability of the automated decision aid to be perfectly reliable. Human-in-the-loop designs, which employ automation for redundant, manual, and monotonous tasks and allow operators active participation, provide not only safety benefits, but also allow a human operator and a system to respond more flexibly to uncertain and unexpected events. However, there can be measurable costs to human performance when automation is used, such as loss of situational awareness, complacency, skill degradation, and automation bias. This paper will discuss the influence of automation bias in intelligent decision support systems, particularly those in aviation domains. Automation bias occurs in decision-making because humans have a tendency to disregard or not search for contradictory information in light of a computer-generated solution that is accepted as correct and can be exacerbated in time critical domains. Automated decision aids are designed to reduce human error but actually can cause new errors in the operation of a system if not designed with human cognitive limitations in mind.

Situation awareness in emergency medical dispatch

Abstract: Situation awareness, and how systems can be designed to support it appropriately, have been a focus of study in dynamic, safety critical contexts such as aviation. The work reported here extends the study of situation awareness into the domain of emergency medical dispatch (EMD). The study was conducted in one of the largest ambulance services in the world. In this study, we encountered development and exploitation of situation awareness, particularly among the more senior EMD operators called allocators. In this paper we describe the notion of a 'mental picture' as an outcome of situation awareness, how an awareness of the situation is developed and maintained, the cues allocators attend to, and the difficulties they face in doing so. One of the key characteristics of ambulance control is that relatively routine behaviour is periodically interspersed with incidents that demand much higher levels of attention, but that the routine work must still be completed; operators exhibit contrasting levels of situation awareness for the different kinds of incidents. Our findings on situation awareness are related to those of others, particularly Endsley and Wickens. The observations and interviews enable us to propose high-level requirements for systems to support appropriate situation awareness, to enable EMD staff to complete their work effectively.

Situation Awareness as Distributed Cognition

Abstract: In this paper we argue that the predominant models of Situation Awareness (SA) are inadequate for the study of systems operated by teams. The reason for this is that these models are based on mentalistic assumptions focusing almost exclusively on individuals. We suggest that, to study the control of dynamic systems, it is necessary to shift the unit of analysis from the individual to the whole cognitive system comprising a team of people as well as the artefacts which they use. Thus, our vantage point is the theoretical framework of distributed cognition. Through two field studies we try to demonstrate how team situation awareness is actively constructed via the communicative practices which the team uses in its work.

Designing to support situation awareness across distances: an example from a scientific collaboratory

Abstract: When collaborating, individuals rely on situation awareness (the gathering, incorporation and utilization of environmental information) to help them combine their unique knowledge and skills and achieve their goals. When collaborating across distances, situation awareness is mediated by technology. There are few guidelines to help system analysts design systems or applications that support the creation and maintenance of situation awareness for teams or groups. We propose a framework to guide design decisions to enhance computer-mediated situation awareness during scientific research collaboration. The foundation for this framework is previous research in situation awareness and virtual reality, combined with our analysis of interviews with and observations of collaborating scientists. The framework suggests that situation awareness is comprised of contextual, task and process, and socio-emotional information. Research in virtual reality systems suggests control, sensory, distraction and realism attributes of technology contribute to a sense of presence [Presence 7 (1998) 225]. We suggest that consideration of these attributes with respect to contextual, task and process, and socio-emotional information provides insights to guide design decisions. We used the framework when designing a scientific collaboratory system. Results from a controlled experimental evaluation of the collaboratory system help illustrate the framework's utility.

The need for command and control instant message adaptive interfaces: lessons learned from Tactical Tomahawk human-in-the-loop simulations.

Abstract: In the recent development of a human-in-the-loop simulation test bed designed to examine human performance issues for supervisory control of the Navy's new Tactical Tomahawk missile, measurements of operator situation awareness (SA) and workload through secondary tasking were taken through an embedded instant messaging program. Instant message interfaces (otherwise known as "chat"), already a means of communication between Navy ships, allow researchers to query users in real-time in a natural, ecologic setting, and thus provide more realistic and unobtrusive measurements. However, in the course of this testing, results revealed that some subjects fixated on the real-time instant messaging secondary task instead of the primary task of missile control, leading to the overall degradation of mission performance as well as a loss of SA. While this research effort was the first to quantify command and control performance degradation as a result of instant messaging, the military has recognized that in its netwo...

Method and apparatus for collaborative aggregate situation awareness

Abstract: A surveillance method comprises the steps of: sending information requests to one or more of a plurality of unmanned airborne platforms, each carrying one or more sensors for gathering information; coordinating processing of the requests among the plurality of airborne platforms; and transmitting responses to the requests to one or more requesters. A surveillance system that can be used to perform the method is also provided.

Building a Framework for Situation Awareness

Abstract: : There has been much activity over the past two decades in developing conceptual models under the titles of data fusion and situation awareness. In this paper we will explore the two most popular models and show how they complement each other in developing an overall framework for situation awareness. We will also demonstrate how this framework has been applied to a sample "monitoring" problem.

Context- and situation-awareness in information logistics

Abstract: In order to deliver relevant information at the right time to its mobile users, systems such as event notification systems need to be aware of the users' context, which includes the current time, their location, or the devices they use Many context frameworks have been introduced in the past few years However, they usually do not consider the notion of characteristic features of contexts that are invariant during certain time intervals Knowing the current situation of a user allows the system to better target the information to be delivered This paper presents a model to handle various contexts and situations in information logistics A context is defined as a collection of values usually observed by sensors, eg., location or temperature A situation builds on this concept by introducing semantical aspects defined in an ontology Our situation awareness proposal has been tested in two projects.

Evaluation of supervisory vs. peer-peer interaction with human-robot teams

Abstract: We submit that the most interesting and fruitful human-robot interaction (HRI) may be possible when the robot is able to interact with the human as a true team member, rather than a tool. However, the benefits of shared control can all too easily be overshadowed by challenges inherent to blending human and robot initiative. The most important requirements for peer-peer interaction are system trust and ability to predict system behavior. The human must be able to understand the reason for and effects of robot initiative. These requirements can only be met through careful application of human factors principles and usability testing to determine how users interact with the system. This paper discusses the recent human participant usability testing, which took our current implementation to task using a search and rescue scenario within a complex, real-world environment. The purpose of testing was to examine how human operators work with the robotic system at each level of autonomy, and how interaction with the robot should be structured to enable situation awareness and task completion. Analyses revealed that our architecture equally supported situation awareness and target detection by novices and experts, although experienced users were more likely to have more performance expectations of the interface. Results also had implications regarding the ability of participants to effectively utilize the collaborative workspace and, most importantly, their ability to understand and willingness to accept robot initiative.

Exploring Information Superiority: A Methodology for Measuring the Quality of Information and Its Impact on Shared Awareness

Abstract: : The military is formulating new visions, strategies, and concepts that capitalize on emerging information-age technologies to provide its warfighters with significantly improved capabilities to meet the national security challenges of the 21st century. These programs are described in such documents as the Quadrennial Defense Review, Joint Vision 2020, a variety of publications describing network-centric warfare (NCW), and other documents describing military transformation. Joint Vision 2020 provides an important starting point for describing a future warfighting concept that has since evolved into NCW. A key tenet of Joint Vision 2020 is that information superiority will enable decision dominance, new Joint operational concepts, and a decisive advantage over future adversaries. To create and leverage information superiority, it is foreseen that, under some circumstances, a mix of command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR) capabilities would interoperate with weapon systems and forces on an end-to-end basis through a network-centric information environment to achieve significant improvements in awareness, shared awareness, and synchronization. The military is embarked on a series of analyses and experiments to improve its understanding of the potential of these NCW concepts. The Assistant Secretary of Defense for Networks and Information Integration (ASD NII), through the Command and Control Research Program, asked RAND to help develop methods and tools that could improve the assessment of C4ISR capabilities and processes to the achievement of NCW concepts, including awareness, shared awareness, and synchronization. In response to this request, the RAND Corporation has been participating in the Information Superiority Metrics Working Group, under the auspices of ASD NII. The group s purpose is to describe key concepts and related metrics that are necessary to explore part of the proposed NCW value chain.

Evaluation of a human-robot interface: development of a situational awareness methodology

Abstract: This paper outlines a methodology to evaluate supervisory user interfaces for robotic vehicles based on an assessment of situational awareness. The results of an initial experiment are discussed. The evaluation method will be validated in a future experiment that will also result in a benchmarked user interface.

Warfighter Physiological and Environmental Monitoring: A Study for the U.S. Army Research Institute in Environmental Medicine and the Soldier Systems Center

Abstract: : An unprecedented opportunity exists to introduce real-time physiological and environmental monitoring technology into future US Army dismounted forces for use in both training and combat situations. The motivation is to enhance the survivability of the individual warfighter and to provide increased situational awareness to both combat medics and commanders during the course of a mission or field operation. The monitoring technology must be reliable, must be unobtrusive, and compelling in terms of value to both the lowest-echelon warfighters and their command chain. Realizing these objectives will require adapting and extending ambulatory medical monitoring technology well beyond the capabilities of current commercial devices and systems, and will place the US Army in a unique position with regard to real-time physiological status and health monitoring. This report identifies specific technology and system level issues that must be addressed to realize the objective system and proposes both a near-term and far-term system concept and development strategy. Technology developments critical to success include covert wireless personal area networking, physiological and environmental sensors hardened for the dynamic warfighter environment, and real-time data processing and fusion algorithms to extract the relevant physiological information and overall health status.

Situation awareness in intelligent agents: foundations for a theory of proactive agent behavior

Abstract: This work outlines a computational model of situation awareness. This model serves two purposes. First, it provides a detailed description for our everyday notion of situation awareness. Second, it offers an alternative perspective of looking into the nature and characteristics of proactive behavior in intelligent agent systems. Most of the existing definitions of proactiveness do not possess the relevant details to encourage rigorous studies of enhancing an agent's capability to anticipate and deal with foreseeable situations. This work intends to fill this gap by suggesting a working definition of proactiveness, which place additional emphasis on its underpinning cognitive process and its role in directing an agent's attention. A brief discussion of using situation awareness as meta-level control to direct a resource-bounded agent's attention is also included.

The search and rescue optimal planning system

Abstract: This article explores the optimal planning system aspects of search and rescue (SAR) operations. Determining how and where to place the available search assets to maximize their overall search effectiveness is the objective of search planning. Search planning consists of three components: situational awareness (ascertaining what happened where and when); search object drift modeling (how has wind and water current affected the search object over the drift interval); and effort allocation (how best to spread finite aircraft and vessel hours over a search area). The Search and Rescue Optimal Planning System (SAROPS) is an information system designed to support situational awareness, drift modeling, and optimal allocation of resources. The authors offer an example to illustrate SAROPS usage.

Vision-based control of micro-air-vehicles: progress and problems in estimation

Abstract: Vision-based control of agile autonomous vehicles in complicated 3-D environments requires fundamental and ground breaking innovations in multiple, related disciplines. These disciplines include control theory, vision processing, signal processing, sensor development, micro-computer technology and the design and instrumentation of micro-air-vehicles (MAVs). Extremely agile small vehicles with acute situational awareness are required for flying through complex environments such as urban canyons confined by buildings, trees, ... etc. Vision-based navigation of such vehicles in the neighborhood of ground vehicles, civilians, as well as in poor weather likewise requires a host of innovations in robust vision estimation. Robust vision estimation includes tasks such as feature point extraction, feature point tracking, image registration, segmentation, object detection and object identification. Control of these agile autonomous vehicles requires innovative control methodologies that synthesize image plane inputs in real-time. This problem can be construed as a feedback control problem with millions of raw input channels, the pixels in the image plane. Observation aggregation techniques, rigorously stable "visual servoing" methods, robust sensor fusion methods and fundamental theoretical studies of the controllability and observability of such flight systems are just some of the control theoretic issues that are currently lacking. This paper outlines progress and several open problems in vision-based estimation for MAVs. It introduces and summarizes several critical technologies that are currently being applied to this overall objective.

Bayesian Games for Threat Prediction and Situation Analysis

Abstract: Higher levels of the JDL model call for prediction of future development and awareness of the development of a situation. Since the situations handled by Command and Control systems develop by actions performed by opposing agents, pure probabilistic or evidential techniques are not quite sufficient tools for prediction. Game theoretic tools can give an improved appreciation of the real uncertainty in this prediction task, and also be a tool in the planning process. We review recent developments in game theory and apply them in a decision support tool for Command and Control situation awareness enhancements.

Situation Awareness Requirements for Infantry Platoon Leaders

Abstract: Situation awareness (SA) is a construct closely linked to decision making and performance. Identifying SA requirements for specific jobs is a necessary first step in accurately assessing SA, develo...

System and method for many-to-many information coordination and distribution

Abstract: A hazard information coordination system is provided with intelligent routing to enhance the distribution of information from multiple information sources to a plurality of destinations. Routing is performed based on data values and associated intelligence that determines what data is relevant to which users. User preferences, geographical location, local environment, current activities, and planned activities help a decision support system determine what data is relevant for each user. Thus, decision support systems are preferably provided with situational awareness, context awareness, and forecasting capabilities.

Measures of Information Complexity and the Implications for Automation Design

Abstract: : Information complexity associated with automation aids is a bottleneck that limits their use. While automation systems are designed to bring new functions to users and increase their capacities, automation also creates new tasks associated with acquiring and integrating information from displays. For example, a complex display increases information load to human operators and reduces usability. Thus, the efficiency of an automation system largely depends on the complexity of displayed information. To evaluate the costs and benefits of an automation aid, it is important to understand how much information is shown on the display, how users look at multiple information sources to build and maintain situation awareness, and whether the information is displayed in a compatible way so it can be integrated and understood easily without the user having to make internal conversions or calculations. In this paper, we present a set of measures to assess information complexity. The metrics count information complexity as the combination of three basic factors: numeric size, variety, and relation; each factor is evaluated by the functions at three stages of brain information processing: perception, cognition, and action. Ideally, these measures provide an objective method to evaluate automation systems for acquisition and design prototypes.

Considerations for training team situation awareness and task performance through pc-gamer simulated multiship helicopter operations

Abstract: In this research, we considered the development and implementation of a Targeted Acceptable Response to Generated Events or Tasks methodology (Fowlkes, Dwyer, Oser, & Salas, 1998; Fowlkes, Lane, Salas, Franz, & Oser, 1994) for training of intercockpit team situational awareness and task performance. Additionally, we considered the usability and suitability of a PC-gamer approach for simulation of multiship helicopter operations. In this research, we extended the concept of situation awareness and task performance from the traditional intracockpit crew focus to an intercockpit team perspective. That extension necessitated the development of evaluation instruments that link events, which affect the multiship aviation team, to their situational awareness and task performance. Further, we discuss the usability of the off-the-shelf PC-gamer interface and software used in the research along with suggestions for future research.