Showing papers on "Situational ethics published in 1974"
TL;DR: A new sex-role inventory is described that treats masculinity and femininity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics.
Abstract: This article describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and femininity as two independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data are presented, as well as the results of various psychometric analyses. The major findings of conceptual interest are: (a) the dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically as well as logically independent; (6) the concept of psychological androgyny is a reliable one; and (c) highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women. Both in psychology and in society at large, masculinity and femininity have long been conceptualized as bipolar ends of a single continuum; accordingly, a person has had to be either masculine or feminine, but not both. This sex-role dichotomy has served to obscure two very plausible hypotheses: first, that many individuals might be "androgynous" ; that is, they might be both masculine and feminine, both assertive and yielding, both instrumental and expressive—depending on the situational appropriateness of these various behaviors; and conversely, that strongly sex-typed individuals might be seriously limited in the range of behaviors available to them as they move from situation to situation. According to both Kagan (1964) and Kohlberg (1966), the highly sex-typed individual is motivated to keep his behavior consistent with an internalized sex-role standard, a goal that he presumably accomplishes by suppressing any behavior that might be con
7,984 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, it is argued that the nomothetic assumptions of the traditional research paradigm are incorrect and that by adopting some of the idiographic assumptions employed by our intuitions, higher cross-situational correlation coefficients can be obtained.
Abstract: The historically recurring controversy over the existence of cross-situational consistencies in behavior is sustained by the discrepancy between our intuitions, which affirm their existence, and the research literature, which does not. It is argued that the nomothetic assumptions of the traditional research paradigm are incorrect and that by adopting some of the idiographic assumptions employed by our intuitions, higher cross-situational correlation coefficients can be obtained. A study is reported which shows that it is possible to identify on a priori grounds those individuals who will be crosssituationally consistent and those who will not, and it is concluded that not only must personality assessment attend to situations—as has been recently urged—but to persons as well.
1,272 citations
TL;DR: In this article, an exploration of the amounts and patterns of variance in unpredicted behaviors is presented. But it is not examined as explanations for the behaviors in the context of situations, contexts, or situations.
Abstract: Circumstances, contexts, or situations are often cited but rarely examined as explanations for unpredicted behaviors. This article reports an exploration of the amounts and patterns of variance in ...
550 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a review of the literature involving the leader behavior dimensions "Consideration" and "Initiating Structure" is presented for the purpose of developing some situational propositions of leader effectiveness.
258 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that learners who have achieved excellence in interpersonal communication should be able to set and achieve learning goals, collaborate with others, and adapt to situational changes.
Abstract: The authors argue that learners who have achieved excellence in interpersonal communication should be able to set and achieve learning goals, collaborate with others, and adapt to situational changes. Five skills derived from the interpersonal competence paradigm are offered as potential focal points for instruction: empathic communication, descriptiveness, owning, self‐disclosure, and behavioral flexibility. Several teaching‐learning strategies are proposed, and methods of evaluating directly observable communication behaviors are presented.
202 citations
TL;DR: In the first study, 52 subjects were required to judge the appropriateness of IS behaviors in each of IS situations in a behavior-situation matrix as mentioned in this paper, and different methods of measurement provided initial construct validity evidence for the concepts.
Abstract: In the first of two studies, 52 subjects were required to judge the appropriateness of IS behaviors in each of IS situations in a behavior-situation matrix. Differences among behaviors, situations, and their interaction contributed substantial proportions of the total variance in judgments. The concepts of behavioral appropriateness and situational constraint were offered to account for the differences obtained among behaviors and situations, respectively. A second study using a new sample of 42 subjects and different methods of measurement provided initial construct validity evidence for the concepts. Implications of these results for the construction of situational response hierarchies, the development of behavior and situation taxonomies, and causal attribution were discussed.
201 citations
150 citations
132 citations
TL;DR: This article examined evidence bearing on one of these theories, political socialization, and found relatively minor support for it, and a variety of alternative explanations flow from these results, the most radical of which would call for abandoning the political socialisation perspective altogether.
Abstract: Three perspectives are usually used to explain differences in political beliefs and behavior of men and women: political socialization, structural, and situational. This paper examines evidence bearing on one of these theories, political socialization, and finds relatively minor support for it. A variety of alternative explanations flow from these results, the most radical of which would call for abandoning the political socialization perspective altogether. A more cautious reading of the findings suggests a new interpretation, one that integrates both political socialization and situational theories.
78 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Gillies's rule is replaced by the concept of a distribution which is falsifiable with respect to a canonical random variable, which is invariant under change of random variable and no Neyman type paradoxes arise.
Abstract: This equation is invariant under change of random variable, so no Neyman type paradoxes arise. Thus Gillies's rule must be replaced by the concept of a distribution which is falsifiable with respect to a canonical random variable. But at this point the question of how we select the canonical random variable will arise and this will lead us to introduce qualitative considerations for using a test statistic which do not depend solely on the distribution function for the statistic. This leaves open the question of whether these additional considerations should involve introducing alternative hypotheses, but at all events Gillies's original rule cannot escape the Neyman paradox. The best that may be said, following Gillies, is that the statistic used should measure quantities of practical interest, or be closely related to such quantities. This might still allow some flexibility in re-scaling, but would eliminate transformations which alter the linear ordering of the statistic, and it is just such transformations that lead to Neyman's paradox. With such an addition Gillies's rule may provide a viable alternative to other approaches to the difficult problem of testing statistical hypotheses.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that from an educational perspective, sex-linked genetic differences are largely irrelevant, second, that sexlinked cultural differences are real, but unstable and situational, and finally, that bicultural blendings are beneficial and increasingly prevalent.
Abstract: How can schools as they currently exist serve the needs of the sexes during an era of changing sex-role sensibility? Addressing this question, the authors propose that the construct of sex role is better conceptualized in cultural than in psychosocial terms. This allows for a more coherent analysis of the interactions of three cultural phenomena: formal schooling, femininity, and masculinity. The concept of sex-role culture is rotated through three models of cultural interaction: Genetic Differences, Cultural Differences, and Biculturalism. Each model contributes to an understanding of the systemic relationship between sex-role culture and educational practice. The authors argue first, that from an educational perspective, sex-linked genetic differences are largely irrelevant, second, that sex-linked cultural differences are real, but unstable and situational, and finally, that bicultural blendings are beneficial and increasingly prevalent. The school's task is to provide children with equal access to tra...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the psychological dynamics and situational factors that determine whether an individual will experience support and/or confrontation in a laboratory setting and derived a contingency framework to suggest the conditions that will lead to acceptance or rejection of the laboratory experience, or to self-awareness and personal growth.
Abstract: This study investigated the psychological dynamics and situational factors that determine whether an individual will experience support and/or confrontation in a laboratory setting. The psychological dynamics were represented by C. G. Jung's psychological types and the situational factors were the experiential norms that manifest these psychic functions. A Contingency framework was derived to suggest the conditions that will lead to the acceptance or rejection of the laboratory experience, or to self-awareness and personal growth. The research data give reasonable evidence to this framework, and the implications of the study are given for: (1) the identification of the rejectors of particular laboratory experiences, (2) the design of different laboratories via alternative experiential norms, and (3) the intervention strategies for staff and trainers according to the laboratory setting and goals.
15 Feb 1974
TL;DR: In this article, a discussion of the way in which persons become institutionalized and institutionally socialized in the institution of prison is presented, where the concept of situational control is discussed and elaborated upon as a perspective from which to view the causes of human behavior.
Abstract: : A discussion of the way in which persons become institutionalized and institutionally socialized is presented. Special attention is given to the form these processes take in the institution of prison. The concept of 'situational control' is discussed and elaborated upon as a perspective from which to view the causes of human behavior. The potency of situational control and social 'roles' in institutional settings is emphasized. Included is a section designed to convey a personal, phenomenological perspective on prison conditions, followed by an analytical treatment of social control in prison. Parallels between prison degradation and dehumanization, and the processes by which persons become 'socialized into criminality' in society at large are suggested. The role of social science in investigating and disseminating information about these forms of social control is discussed. (Author)
TL;DR: In an attempt to determine the relative importance of institutional vs. situational perspectives in influencing faculty perceptions of the academic environment, Institutional Functioning Inventory responses were obtained from representative samples of faculty, students and administrators at a diverse cross-section of American colleges.
Abstract: In an attempt to determine the relative importance of institutional vs. situational perspectives in influencing faculty perceptions of the academic environment, Institutional Functioning Inventory responses were obtained from representative samples of faculty, students and administrators at a diverse cross-section of American colleges. Though administrators tended to have more favorable views than those of the students or faculty members, the evidence strongly suggests the presence of one generally-perceived environment, rather than a series of sub-environments dependent upon group membership. Furthermore, faculty views seemed to be relatively independent of various faculty situational variables, such as academic rank, teaching load, and academic field.
TL;DR: The task is to define the context variables in order to discover what questions influence the expression of knowledge: why the child solves a problem in one context and not in another; and, how much of the context must be included in the evaluation and what that context should be.
Abstract: In Assessing the individual’s knowledge involves sampling in areas of (1) the class of items and (2) the class of responses. If one samples an individual’s knowledge base with decontextualized items, the response is a better indication of knowledge since it is not dependent on extra dimensional support, i.e., reflects generalization not tied to a particular context. On the other hand, if tasks demand similar processes but vary in form of presentation, we should examine the meaning and significance of form. The context in which the item is presented alters the very nature of that item by a virtue of necessitated situational constraints or facilitators. Accordingly, our task is to define the context variables in order to discover what questions influence the expression of knowledge: why the child solves a problem in one context and not in another; and, how much of the context must be included in the evaluation and what that context should be. The answers must come from three kinds of considerations: (1) task-oriented criteria; (2) motivational elements, and (3) the relationship between personality and performance.
TL;DR: The authors showed that the influence of early family influence on later achievement motivation can be attributed to the demand characteristics of the therapy situation itself, as opposed to intrapsychic or internal personal characteristics in the determination of behavior.
Abstract: One strong trend within social science today involves the increasing recognition of situational or "reality" factors, as opposed to intrapsychic or "internal" personal characteristics in the determination of behavior. Jackson and Haley (1968) see many aspects of transference as due to the demand characteristics of the therapy situation itself. Others have shown that such diverse behaviors as marked differences in maternal care (Minturn and Lamberts, 1964), increases in intelligence test scores (Haggard, 1954) and rises in school achievement (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968) may also be accounted for in terms of diverse situational or environmental pressures. Although any attempt to explain all behavior in terms of either "inside" versus "outside" is bound to oversimplify the issue, social scientists are now looking more and more at situational factors to account for variations in behavior. Thus, in spite of McClelland's (1961) and Winterbottom's (1953) studies of early family influence on later achievement motivation, the 1967 U.S. Commission on Civil Rights Report (see Wilson, 1967) concluded that "while family status is of great importance for early school achievement, in the later grades the influence of family gives way more and more to the influence of student's peers" (p. 82). Wilson (1959) concluded that the average socioeconomic status of the student body influences the aspirations of individual
Book•
01 Jan 1974TL;DR: In this article, it is shown that the principal's attention is likely to be diverted to other problems that have little direct connection with pedagogy, and these variations appear to be systematically related to situational factors over which the principal has little or no control: the size of his school, the phase of the school's history, neighborhood stability and the social class of the pupils.
Abstract: Stereotypes play a large part in shaping what is expected of men and women engaged in a particular job (1). Often, however, there is a sizable discrepancy between the stereotype and the reality. Many occupations are scarcely known to outsiders. Even occupations that have an accurate public image may lose that distinction through changing conditions (2). Work is not performed in a vacuum, but in a setting, or situation. This situation can have a profound effect on an occupational role, transforming it to such a degree that people are actually doing work quite different from that usually associated with their occupation (3). The public school principal provides an example. Although it is generally assumed that the principal is the instructional leader of his school, few principals concentrate on education. Instead, their attention is likely to be diverted to other problems that have little direct connection with pedagogy. The emphasis given to these other problems varies from one principal to the next, but is not simply a matter of personal choice. On the contrary, these variations appear to be systematically related to situational factors over which the principal has little or no control: the size of his school (4), the phase of the school's history (5), neighborhood stability (5), and the social class of the pupils (6).
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors developed a conceptual framework for studying and measuring interpersonal communication and found four dimensions of interpersonal relationships that are invariant over different experimental methods, stimulus sets, and subject groups.
Abstract: We are currently engaged in a program of research aimed at developing a conceptual framework for studying and measuring interpersonal communication. Our approach in the initial phase of this research is conceptual; that is, we are exploring the dimensions people use implicitly in characterizing and comparing different kinds of interpersonal communication. Results from this phase will guide our future laboratory and field studies of &dquo;live&dquo; communication. Thus far we have found four dimensions of interpersonal relationships that are invariant over different experimental methods, stimulus sets, and subject groups (Wish, 1973; Wish, Kaplan, and Deutsch, 1973). They are interpreted as &dquo;Cooperation and Harmony vs. Competition and Conflict,&dquo; &dquo;Equality vs. Inequality,&dquo; &dquo;Personal and Informal
TL;DR: Work motivation may be viewed as a function of intellectual vs. emotional factors in behavior and relationships between them; the intellectual, reality factors providing situational structure and the emotional aspects yielding the energy supply.
Abstract: Takes the position that work motivation may be viewed as a function of intellectual vs. emotional factors in behavior and relationships between them; the intellectual, reality factors providing situational structure and the emotional aspects yielding the energy supply. Four groups, technical and managerial, (N = 104) were sampled on favorable-unfavorable dimension of factual and objective current work experiences separately from the affective and emotional. Data analysis indicated (a) subjects readily made the distinction; (b) objective factors defined the situational structure; (c) ego-centered factors of interpersonal and object relations yielded emotional experiences; (d) skill may furnish important linkages between structural and emotional experiences. A framework and implications for analysis of work activities and experiences toward increased effectiveness and intrinsic satisfaction from work activity are discussed, together with lines of further current investigation.
TL;DR: In this paper, the logical consistency of a theory of academic motivation which involves three classes of phenomena: personality dispositions, values, and situational variabilistic variab... is investigated.
Abstract: This paper is concerned with measuring the logical consistency of a theory of academic motivation which involves three classes of phenomena: personality dispositions, values, and situational variab...