Showing papers on "Subtropics published in 2001"

Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs, hardy in North America : exclusive of the subtropical and warmer temperate regions.

Abstract: Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs hardy in North America exclusive of the subtropical and warmer Temperate Regions , Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs hardy in North America exclusive of the subtropical and warmer... , مرکز فناوری اطلاعات و اطلاع رسانی کشاورزی

Climates of the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries Simulated by the NCAR Climate System Model

Abstract: The Climate System Model, a coupled global climate model without ‘‘flux adjustments’’ recently developed at the National Center for Atmospheric Research, was used to simulate the twentieth-century climate using historical greenhouse gas and sulfate aerosol forcing. This simulation was extended through the twenty-first century under two newly developed scenarios, a business-as-usual case (ACACIA-BAU, CO2 710 ppmv in 2100) and a CO2 stabilization case (STA550, CO 2 540 ppmv in 2100). Here we compare the simulated and observed twentieth-century climate, and then describe the simulated climates for the twenty-first century. The model simulates the spatial and temporal variations of the twentieth-century climate reasonably well. These include the rapid rise in global and zonal mean surface temperatures since the late 1970s, the precipitation increases over northern mid- and high-latitude land areas, ENSO-induced precipitation anomalies, and Pole‐ midlatitude oscillations (such as the North Atlantic oscillation) in sea level pressure fields. The model has a cold bias (28‐68C) in surface air temperature over land, overestimates of cloudiness (by 10%‐30%) over land, and underestimates of marine stratus clouds to the west of North and South America and Africa. The projected global surface warming from the 1990s to the 2090s is ;1.98C under the BAU scenario and ;1.58C under the STA550 scenario. In both cases, the midstratosphere cools due to the increase in CO 2, whereas the lower stratosphere warms in response to recovery of the ozone layer. As in other coupled models, the surface warming is largest at winter high latitudes ($5.08C from the 1990s to the 2090s) and smallest (;1.08C) over the southern oceans, and is larger over land areas than ocean areas. Globally averaged precipitation increases by ;3.5% (3.0%) from the 1990s to the 2090s in the BAU (STA550) case. In the BAU case, large precipitation increases (up to 50%) occur over northern mid- and high latitudes and over India and the Arabian Peninsula. Marked differences occur between the BAU and STA550 regional precipitation changes resulting from interdecadal variability. Surface evaporation increases at all latitudes except for 60 8‐908S. Water vapor from increased tropical evaporation is transported into mid- and high latitudes and returned to the surface through increased precipitation there. Changes in soil moisture content are small (within 63%). Total cloud cover changes little, although there is an upward shift of midlevel clouds. Surface diurnal temperature range decreases by about 0.28‐ 0.58C over most land areas. The 2‐8-day synoptic storm activity decreases (by up to 10%) at low latitudes and over midlatitude oceans, but increases over Eurasia and Canada. The cores of subtropical jets move slightly upand equatorward. Associated with reduced latitudinal temperature gradients over mid- and high latitudes, the wintertime Ferrel cell weakens (by 10%‐15%). The Hadley circulation also weakens (by ;10%), partly due to the upward shift of cloudiness that produces enhanced warming in the upper troposphere.

Glacier-climate interaction at low latitudes

Abstract: In the low latitudes there is an absence of major thermal seasonality, yet there are three different climate regimes related to global circulation patterns and their seasonal oscillation: the humid inner tropics, the dry subtropics and, intermediate between these two, the outer tropics. For the respective glacier regimes the vertical profiles of specific mass balance (VBPs) are modeled considering vertical gradients of accumulation, air temperature and albedo, the duration of the ablation period and a factor for the ratio between melting and sublimation. The model is first calibrated with data from Hintereisferner, Austrian Alps, and is then applied to tropical conditions. The simulated VBP matches well the measured profiles from Irian jaya and Mount Kenya. Due to lack of field evidence, the subtropical VBP cannot be verified directly. However, application of the respective model versions separately to the humid and dry seasons of the outer-tropical Glaciar Uruashraju, Cordillera Blanca, Peru, provides reasonable results. Glaciers in the humid inner tropics are considered to be most sensitive to variations in air temperature, while dry subtropical glaciers are most sensitive to changes in air humidity. The two seasons of the outer tropics have to be viewed from these different perspectives.

Chapter 1 – Interhemispheric Effects of Interannual and Decadal ENSO-Like Climate Variations on the Americas

Abstract: Publisher Summary This chapter discusses the Interannual E1 Nino / Southern Oscillation (ENSO), and decadal ENSO-like climate variations of the Pacific basin, which are important contributors to the year-to-year variations of the climate of North and South America Analysis of historical observations of global sea surface temperatures, global 500mbar pressure surfaces, and western hemisphere hydro climatic variations that are linearly associated with the ENSO-like climate variations yields striking cross equatorial symmetries as well as qualitative similarities between the climatic expressions of the interannual, and decadal processes Despite the different source mechanisms, both interannual and decadal ENSO-like climate variations yield wetter subtropics, drier mid-latitudes, and tropics over the Americas in response to equatorward shifts in westerly winds, and storm tracks in both hemispheres The similarities of their continental surface climate expressions may impede separation of the two ENSO-like processes in paleoclimatic reconstructions

Global distribution of the potato crop

Abstract: The global distribution of potato area is described using country-level statistics and a new geo-referenced database. There are two main peaks in global potato distribution by latitude. The major peak is between 45°N and 57°N and represents potato production zones in the temperate climates where potato is a summer crop. The other peak is between 23°N and 34°N, and mainly represents production zones in the subtropical lowlands, where potato is a winter crop. Between 1950 and 1998 potato production area increased at low latitudes and decreased at high latitudes, particularly around 53°N (this zone includes parts of Belarus, Germany, Poland, Russia, and Ukraine). The northern limit of potato production coincides with the boundaries of agriculture and the presence of human population. The peak between 23°N and 34°N coincides with the area of highest population density (per area of land and per area of arable land). About 25% of the global potato area is in the highlands (above 1000 m).

Climate shifts during the last century

Abstract: Fluctuations of the land surface areas covered by Koeppen climates are analysed for the 1901 to 1995 period using trends and outliers as indicators of climate shift. Only the extreme climate zones of the global Tropics and of the Tundra (with the highly correlated northern hemisphere temperature) realise statistically significant shifts and outliers. There are nosignificant trends and outliers in the fluctuating ocean-atmosphere patterns (Pacific Decadal and North Atlantic Oscillations) and the highly correlated intermediate climate zones (dry, subtropical and boreal) of the surrounding continents.

Neotropical Savanna Environments in Space and Time: Late Quaternary Interhemispheric Comparisons

Abstract: Publisher Summary To obtain a better insight into past vegetational, and climatic changes along the Pole-Equator- Pole: Americas transect, 32 late Quaternary pollen records from savanna, forest-savanna transition regions of the South American neotropics, and north and south of the equator, have been compared in this chapter. During pre-full glacial times, environmental changes in savannas were spatially complex. Some records show either stable grassland, where forest exists today, or a repeated alternation between forest, and savanna. During the full glacial period, neotropical savannas, both north and south of the equator, expanded because of markedly drier conditions. In the southern neotropical regions, savanna area was reduced, and replaced by subtropical grassland by cold climatic conditions during glacial periods. During the late glacial period, climate changed to wetter conditions north of equator earlier at 16,000-14,000 14C B.P., in montane regions. Wetter conditions were not recorded in the high plains or lowlands. During the early Holocene, the climate was drier in most of the South American savannas. Early Holocene distribution of savanna was much larger than during the late Holocene. The general synchrony of paleoenvironmental changes since the full glacial period, from neotropical savanna sites north and south of the equator, suggests changes in the latitudinal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) may have played an important role. The movement of the high pressure cell over the South Atlantic, and changes in frequency of the tracks of the Antarctic cold fronts were also important.

Trends in upper-tropospheric humidity

Abstract: Water vapor is the most radiatively active greenhouse gas, and the process of water-vapor feedback may significantly amplify global warming induced by anthropogenic greenhouse gasses. Satellite radiance observations from the past 20 years, which are sensitive to the water vapor and temperature of the upper troposphere, provide the first global observations of trends in upper-tropospheric humidity. These decadal trends are strongly positive in the deep tropics, negative in the Southern Hemisphere subtropics and midlatitudes, and of mixed sign in the Northern Hemisphere subtropics and midlatitudes. The trends are shown to be consistent with atmospheric circulation changes observed in the past 20 years, including a tendency toward more El Nino-Southern Oscillation warm events and changes in transient eddy activity in the subtropics.

A subtropical rainstorm associated with a tropical plume overAfrica and the Middle-East

Abstract: Cloud bands that extend from the ITCZ along the subtropical jet toward the subtropics are known as ‘tropical plumes’. At times rainstorms develop at their subtropical edges. One such rainstorm swept eastern North Africa and the Middle East on 23–24 December 1988, with rainfall comparable with the annual averages there. This study examines the storm using the ECMWF initialized data together with surface observations and satellite imageries. The analysis indicates that the storm developed at the inflection region ahead of a pronounced trough in the subtropical jet, with which a mid-latitude trough was merged. Two ageostrophic effects taking place along the jet ahead of the trough contributed to the intensity of the rainstorm. One was associated with acceleration at the jet entrance, located at tropical latitudes, which contributed to the enhancement of both tropical convection and the southerly wind component, which enhanced the moisture tropical transport toward the subtropics. The second was the enhanced near-tropospheric divergence associated with positive vorticity advection at the inflection region itself. Since both effects have a quadratic dependence on wind speed, the observed jet speed, 50% larger than its average value, explains the observed divergence at the inflection point at the 200 hPa level, over 6 × 10−5 s−1, and the vertical velocity at the 700 hPa level, about 10−1 ms−1. It is suggested here that the merging of a mid-latitude with the trough in the subtropical jet, with which the tropical plume is associated, is the cause for the intensification of the subtropical jet and hence of its related rainstorms.

Biophysical and human influences on plant species richness in grasslands: Comparing variegated landscapes in subtropical and temperate regions

Abstract: A survey of grassy woodlands in the Queensland subtropics was conducted, recording herbaceous species richness at 212 sites on three properties (2756 ha). A range of habitats typical of cattle grazing enterprises was sampled and site variables included lithology, slope position, tree density, soil disturbance, soil enrichment and grazing. Results were compared with a previously published survey of temperate grasslands. Lithology, slope position and tree density had relatively minor effects on plant species richness, although in both surveys there was some evidence of lower species richness on the more fertile substrates. Soil disturbance and soil enrichment significantly reduced the richness of native species in both surveys, while exotic species were insensitive (subtropics) or increased (temperate) with disturbance. Rare native species were highly sensitive to disturbances, including grazing, in the temperate study. Although some trends were similar for rare species in the subtropics, the results were not significant and there were complex interactions between grazing, lithology and slope position. Grazing did not have a negative effect on native species richness, except in the closely grazed patches within pastures, and then only on the most intensively developed property. At the scale recorded (30 m 2 ), the native pastures, roadsides and stock routes sampled in the subtropics appear to be among the most species-rich grasslands ever reported, both nationally and globally. Native species richness was approximately 50% higher than the temperate survey figures across all the comparable habitats. While there are no clear reasons for this result, potential explanations are proposed.

Polar Air Outbreaks in the Americas: Assessments and Impacts During Modern and Past Climates

Abstract: Publisher Summary Polar outbreaks have long attracted the attention of meteorologists, and climatologists. This chapter describes their air temperatures, air mass central pressures, and wind characteristics, in relation to the atmospheric circulation, and their trajectories over the continents. Outbreaks of polar air into low latitudes tend to organize tropical convection, and rain in summer, while the cold air tends to produce cooling in lower latitudes, and freezes in the subtropics during winter. Cold waves accompanying polar outbreaks have significant impacts in America, including adverse effects on coffee production in South America, and on citrus production in North America. Synoptic events leading to cold waves are similar in America, particularly the upper air patterns, and forcing, but the intensity of the outbreaks of temperature, and pressure is larger in North America. Typically, they are associated with an amplified ridge lying across the western edge of the continent. Records of freezes in coffee- and citrus-growing areas are used to reconstruct subtropical climate variability, and identify linkages to low-frequency variability mechanisms in the atmospheric circulation. Results suggest that there is little link between the occurrence of E1 Nino, and cold waves, and it freezes either hemisphere. Citrus freeze occurrences in Florida are linked to long-term variability in the Pacific-North American (PNA) teleconnection pattern, and they appear to occur in clusters concentrated near the end of each century. Comparisons are made of possible paleoclimate scenarios for the occurrence of cold waves based on evidence reconstructed from pollen, and lake sediment samples collected in southeastern, and central Brazil.

Epiphytic foraminifera along a climatic gradient, western australia

Abstract: The presence of Posidonia australis seagrass habitat along 1000 km of the Western Australian coast provides an opportunity to study variation in epiphytic foraminiferal populations along a climatic gradient. Epiphytic foraminifera were collected in summer and winter from three nearshore shallow-water sites, which span a north-to-south gradient in climate from subtropical semi-arid to subtropical humid. Living epiphytic assemblages at each geographic site are distinct. Warmer water assemblages are characterized by Peneroplis spp. Vertebralina, Amphisorus and Marginopora , whereas Lamellodiscorbis and Rosalina spp characterize cooler water assemblages. The differences in assemblage composition partly reflect a north-to-south change in abundance of species related to climate, but also reflect local factors. Trends related to the climatic gradient include a decrease in miliolid and buliminid specimens and taxa, as well as a decrease in species with tropical affinity from north-to-south. Seasonal sampling at each geographic site also shows a decrease in miliolid and buliminid specimens and taxa, as well as a decrease in species with tropical affinity between summer and winter. This suggests that both regional and seasonal differences in epiphytic foraminiferal populations reflect a spatial vs. temporal response to change in sea temperature. Porcellaneous taxa are particularly sensitive to both regional and seasonal changes in sea temperature and appear to be good indicators of climatic setting. Using selected and critical species of foraminifera, it is possible to divide the subtropical region of Western Australia, traditionally viewed as a single biogeographic province, into at least two sub-climatic regions. Such refinement would be useful for interpreting paleoclimatic and paleoenvironmental settings of fossil assemblages.

Palynoflora at Late Miocene—Early Pliocene from Leijiahe of Lingtai,Gansu Province,China

Abstract: Vegetation and climate changes of Late Miocene_Early Pliocene have been deduced based on pollen research from Wenwanggou and Xiaoshigou sections near Leijiahe village (ca 35°04′15″ N,107°43′30″ E). The two sections are quite famous of rich micromammalian fossils. Before ca. 6.5 Ma, open forest_grassland was distributed in the studied area indicating a temperate and humid condition at that time. In the period between ca.6.5 and 5.8 Ma BP (Late Miocene) predominance of Chenopodiaceae and Artemisia implies that desert or desert_grassland was developed in the area and the climate should be cold and dry. During the time interval from ca.5.8 to 3.4 Ma BP mixed conifer and broad leaved deciduous forest with a few subtropical tree taxa had replaced the arid desert vegetation indicating a warm and humid climate. The climate aridity event of Late Miocene can be correlated with the global climatic event.

Spatial distributions of copepod genera along the Atlantic Meridional Transect

Abstract: The distribution of copepod taxa at a basin scale was analysed using three Atlantic transects (U.K. - Malvinas 1997, Malvinas - U.K. 1997, and South Africa - U.K. 1998). Integrated 200 m to surface zooplankton samples were taken daily, using WP2 nets (200-μm mesh). The zooplankton were size-fractionated and sub-samples taken for carbon analysis. The remainder of the samples was preserved for taxonomic analysis of copepod genera. Multidimensional scaling (MDS) was used to identify zoogeographic regions from the copepod genera. Seven regions were identified: northern temperate, northern subtropical, equatorial, southern tropical, southern sub-tropical, southern temperate and Benguela upwelling. Analysis of similarity showed that most regions were significantly different from each other except: northern temperate and southern temperate, northern temperate and southern subtropical, and northern subtropical and southern subtropical. The genera significant in determining the regions were identified. These regions were compared to other schemes of biological and hydrographic areas. The MDS also showed that the copepod composition in the tropical and subtropical regions was less variable than the temperate and Benguela stations. Latitudinal trends in diversity and size were also investigated. Copepod genera showed a reduction in richness at higher latitudes. Copepod size did not show any substantial or consistent change with latitude along these transects, as demonstrated by both the numerical abundances in each size category, and the carbon biomass per individual. The proportion in each size fraction was quite uniform over the transect.

On the process of summer monsoon onset over east asia

Abstract: Using daily observational rainfall data covered 194 stations of China from 1961 to 1995 and NCEP model analyzed pentad precipitation data of global grid point from 1979 to 1997, the distribution of onset date of rainy season over Asian area from spring to summer is studied in this paper. The analyzed results show that there exist two stages of rainy season onset over East Asian region from spring to summer rainy season onset accompanying subtropical monsoon and tropical monsoon respectively. The former rain belt is mainly formed by the convergence of cold air and the recurved southwesterly flow from western part of subtropical high and westerly flow from the so-called western trough of subtropical region occurring during winter to spring over South Asia. The latter is formed in the process of subtropical monsoon rain belt over inshore regions of South China Sea originally coming from south of Changjiang (Yangtze) River Basin advancing with northward shift of subtropical high after the onset of tropical monsoon over South China Sea. The pre-flood rainy season over South China region then came into mature period and the second peak of rainfall appeared. Meiyu, the rainy season over Changjiang-Huaihe River Basin and North China then formed consequently. The process of summer tropical monsoon onset over South China Sea in 1998 is also discussed in this paper. It indicated that the monsoon during summer tropical monsoon onset over South China Sea is the result of the westerly flow over middle part of South China Sea,which is from the new generated cyclone formed in north subtropical high entering into South China Sea, converged with the tropical southwesterly flow recurved by the intensified cross-equatorial flow.

C Bomb Effect in Tree Rings of Tropical and Subtropical Species of Brazil

Abstract: Atmospheric nuclear tests in the early 1960s introduced large amounts of radiocarbon into the atmosphere, which resulted in an increase of tropospheric 14CO2 concentration by nearly 100% during the years 1964 -1965. The bomb -produced 14C was then gradually incorporated within the global carbon cycle. The history of 14C concentration in the troposphere is preserved within annual growth layers of trees and can be reconstructed for those areas where direct measurements of 14C in the atmosphere were not performed. The paper presents results of 14C activity measurements in tree rings of tropical and subtropical species from Brazil, for the period 1945 -1997. We investigated two species ( Araucaria angustifolia and Parkia sp.) growing at three sites covering the latitudinal band between 7 °S and 24 °S. The results indicate that the maximum 14C activity in the Southern Hemisphere occurred in 1965, with the z14C values reaching around 700%x. Significant differences in 014C were recorded among the studied sites for the period of maximal 14C levels in the atmosphere, with the highest level observed at the tropical site and lowest in the subtropical zone. This reflects the dynamics of interhemispheric transport of 14C during the years of high spatial and temporal gradients of this isotope in the atmosphere.

Influence of land evapotranspiration on climate variations

Abstract: A coupled numerical model of the global atmosphere with a qualified biosphere (GOALS/LASG) has been used to assess the nature of the physical mechanisms for land-atmosphere interactions, and the impacts of the Asian/North American land-surface evapotranspiration on the regional and global climate. This sensitivity study suggests that the simulated climate would be relatively sensitive to land surface evapotranspiration, especially over the Asian regions. The removal of evapotranspiration in Asia would create a warmer and drier climate to a certain degree. Furthermore, the surface evapotranspiration anomalies would make a substantial contribution to the formation and variation of subtropical anticyclones through the changes in monsoon precipitation and the β -effect, but also make a large contribution to the variations of the atmospheric circulation in the Northern Hemisphere and even the globe. Therefore, besides the traditional perception that we have generally emphasized on the influence of subtropical anticyclones activities on the boreal summer precipitation over the regions of eastern China, the surface evapotranspiration anomalies, however, also have substantial impacts on the subtropical anticyclones through the changes in monsoon precipitation. For this reason, the variation in the internal heating sources of the atmosphere caused by the land surface evapotranspiration and the vapor phase change during the boreal summer is an important external factor forcing the weather and climate.

Evaluation of the WGEN and SIMMETEO weather generators for the brazilian tropics and subtropics, using crop simulation models

Abstract: Daily weather data are normally required as an input for crop simulation models. However, raw data collected by weather stations frequently contain errors. Sometimes the available weather series is too short for long-term analyses, which normally require at least 20 to 30 years of daily weather data. For these cases, weather generators can be used to generate daily weather data, based on long-term climate data. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of two weather generators, WGEN and SIMMETEO, for Brazilian tropical and subtropical weather conditions using data from five different weather stations, representing four climate zones in Brazil. Two different methods were used to evaluate the performance of both weather generators. In the first analysis the averages and frequency distribution functions of generated and observed values were compared. In second analysis comparisons were made for irrigated and rainfed grain yield of maize and dry-bean crops simulated with the CERES-Maize and CROPGRO-Dry Bean models, using as input generated and observed weather data. It was verified that in most of the simulations (72.5%), the crop yield simulated with generated weather data from both generators did not differ significantly at the 5% level from yield simulated with observed weather data. Based on the results of this study, it can be concluded that both weather generators can be used to generate long-term weather data for the Brazilian tropics and subtropics for application in strategic analyses with crop simulation models. However, there were significant differences in the distributions of observed and generated data for solar radiation and air temperature.

Quaternary pollen analysis and paleo-environmental evolution in the northern part of taihu plain, jiangsu

Abstract: Based on the pollen analysis, 14 C dating and paleo geomagnetism of 4 cores in the north part of Taihu Plain, combined with sea transgression strata in this area, determined by calcareous nannofossil, ostracoda and foraminifera, the regional pollen assemblages are divided into 10 zones. In comparison with the pertinent environmental and dating data of the lower reach of Yangtze River, the paleo environment records from the 4 sporo pollen zones of 127-15ka BP are studied in detail and the reconstructed sequence of environmental changes is showed as follows. ①Zone Ⅵ(127-70ka BP): period of deciduous and evergreen broad leaf mixed forest, reflecting subtropical warm and wet climate. And in its main warmer stage, the winter temperature was about 4-5°C higher than today's and the humidity was relatively higher. In addition, there were fluctuations of cool wet and cool dry stages during this period. ②Zone Ⅶ(70-30ka BP): period of open forest and steppe, implying cold and semi dry climate. The average annual temperature, which fluctuated dramatically was about 8°C in its main cold stage. ③ Zone Ⅷ(30-21ka BP): period of temperate deciduous and evergreen broad leaf mixed forest, indicating that it was the monsoon marine climate characterized by cool and wet. In this main temperate cool stage, the average month temperature of growth season was about 3℃ lower than today's. And some stages of drier and colder or warmer and relatively humid in this period are found too. ④ Zone IX (21-15ka BP): period of forest steppe, steppe or drought steppe, the average annual temperature was about 8℃ and the annual average rainfall was about 400mm in extremely cold stage.

On the process of summer monsoon onset over east asia

Abstract: Using daily observational rainfall data covered 194 stations of China from 1961 to 1995 and NCEP model analyzed pentad precipitation data of global grid point from 1979 to 1997,the distribution of onset date of rainy season over Asian area from spring to summer is studied in this paper.The analyzed results show that there exist two stages of rainy season onset over East Asian region from spring to summer rainy season onset accompanying subtropical monsoon and tropical monsoon respectively.The former rain belt is mainly formed by the convergence of cold air and the recurred southwesterly flow from western part of subtropical high and westerly flow from the so- called western trough of subtropical region occurring during winter to spring over South Asia.The latter is formed in the process of subtropical monsoon rain belt over inshore regions of South China Sea originally coming from south of Changjiang (Yangtze) River Basin advancing with northward shift of subtropical high after the onset of tropical monsoon over South China Sea.The pre-flood rainy season over South China region then came into mature period and the second peak of rainfall appeared.Meiyu,the rainy season over Changjiang-Huaihe River Basin and North China then formed consequently.The process of summer tropical monsoon onset over South China Sea in 1998 is also discussed in this paper.It indicated that the monsoon during summer tropical monsoon onset over South China Sea is the result of the westerly flow over middle part of South China Sea, which is from the new generated cyclone formed in north subtropical high entering into South China Sea,converged with the tropical southwesterly flow recurred by the intensified cross- equatorial flow.

Plant links between eastern Asia and eastern Australia

Abstract: Plant links between eastern Asia and eastern Australia, regions showing considerable climatic differences, are discussed under five headings, namely, garden plants or ornamentals; naturalized plants; plants used in traditional Chinese medicine or Oriental Materia Medica; plants not yet well enough studied whose distribution suggests they may have originated in regions of the western Pacific; and comparisons between barnyardgrasses (Echinochloa spp.) in the two regions. A table is presented showing simple climatic data; mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures and mean monthly and annual precipitation, along with latitude and altitude for 25 places extending from Monbetsu (about 44 N) in Hokkaido, Japan, through the subtropics and tropics to Hobart (approximately 43 S) in Tasmania, Australia.

Intra-Americas Sea

Abstract: That area of the tropical and subtropical western North Atlantic Ocean encompassing the Gulf of Mexi…