Showing papers on "Waste disposal published in 1993"

The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering

Abstract: The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering presents an in-depth examination of the principles and practice of modern day composting. This comprehensive book covers compost science, engineering design, operation, principles, and practice, stressing a fundamental approach to analysis throughout. Biological, physical, chemical, thermodynamic, and kinetic principles are covered to develop a unified analytical approach to analysis and an understanding of the process. A brief history of the development of composting systems, which leads to descriptions of modern processes, is presented. The Practical Handbook of Compost Engineering also discusses the elements of successful odor management at composting facilities, including state-of-the-art odor treatment and enhanced atmospheric dispersion. The book is excellent for all engineers, practitioners, plant operators, scientists, researchers, and students in the field.

Chemical principles of environmental pollution

Abstract: One Basic Principles.- 1 Introduction.- 1.1 Pollution in the modern world.- 1.2 Definition of pollution.- References.- Further reading.- 2 Transport and behaviour of pollutants in the environment.- 2.1 A basic model of environmental pollution.- 2.2 Sources of pollutants.- 2.3 The pollutants.- 2.3.1 Classification of hazardous substances in the USA.- 2.3.2 European Community Dangerous Substances Directive.- 2.3.3 UK priority list of pollutants.- 2.3.4 Pesticides.- 2.3.5 Indoor pollution.- 2.4 Physical processes of pollutant transport and dispersion.- 2.4.1 Transport media.- 2.4.2 Transport of pollutants in air.- 2.4.3 Some important types of reactions which pollutantsundergo in the atmosphere.- 2.5 Transport of pollutants in water.- 2.5.1 Biochemical processes in water (involving microorganisms).- 2.6 The behaviour of pollutants in the soil.- 2.6.1 The composition and physico-chemical properties of soils.- 2.6.2 Cation and anion adsorption in soils.- 2.6.3 Adsorption and decomposition of organic pollutants.- 2.7 Concluding remarks.- References.- 3 Toxicity and risk assessment of environmental pollutants.- 3.1 Basic principles of toxicology.- 3.2 Effects of pollutants on animals and plants.- 3.2.1 Effects of pollutants on humans and other mammals.- 3.2.2 Teratogenesis, mutagenesis, carcinogenesis and immunesystem defects.- 3.2.3 Ecotoxicology.- 3.3 Assessment of toxicity risks.- 3.3.1 Pollutants in contaminated land.- 3.3.2 Pollutants in drinking water.- 3.3.3 Toxic or explosive gases and vapours.- References.- 4 Analysis and monitoring of pollutants - organiccompounds.- 4.1 Chromatography.- 4.2 Thin layer chromatography (TLC).- 4.2.1 Separation of pesticides.- 4.2.2 Separation of metal cations.- 4.3 Gas liquid chromatography (GLC).- 4.3.1 Detection of eluted substances.- 4.3.2 Principal parameters.- 4.3.3 Optimum operating conditions.- 4.3.4 Capillary columns for GLC.- 4.3.5 Analysis of urban air pollution.- 4.3.6 Detection by mass spectrometry.- 4.4 High pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC).- 4.4.1 The components.- 4.4.2 Detectors.- 4.4.3 Analysis of polluted air.- 4.4.4 Analysis of polluted water.- 4.4.5 Trace enrichment followed by GLC analysis.- 4.5 Pollution by metals - atomic absorption spectroscopy.- 4.5.1 Historical.- 4.5.2 Basic theory of atomic absorption and emission.- 4.5.3 The Lambert-Beer law.- 4.5.4 Instrumental details.- 4.5.5 Interferences.- 4.5.6 The determination of sodium in concrete by AAS.- 4.5.7 Sample preparation.- 4.5.8 Precision and accuracy of measurement.- 4.5.9 Graphite furnace AAS.- 4.6 A plasma source.- 4.6.1 ICP-mass spectrometry.- 4.7 Analytical quality assurance.- 4.8 Environmental monitoring.- 4.8.1 Introduction.- 4.8.2 Monitoring emissions.- References.- Further reading.- Two the Pollutants.- 5 Inorganic pollutants.- 5.1 Ozone.- 5.1.1 Historical.- 5.1.2 Formation.- 5.1.3 Physical properties and structure.- 5.1.4 The ozone layer.- 5.1.5 Factors which disturb the natural environment.- 5.1.6 Chemistry of stratospheric CFC.- 5.1.7 Control measures.- 5.1.8 Ozone in the troposphere.- 5.1.9 Diurnal variations of ozone levels.- 5.1.10 Toxicity and control.- 5.2 Oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur.- 5.2.1 Carbon dioxide.- 5.2.2 Oxides of nitrogen.- 5.2.3 Oxides of sulphur.- 5.3 Heavy metals.- 5.3.1 General properties.- 5.3.2 Biochemical properties of heavy metals.- 5.3.3 Sources of heavy metals.- 5.3.4 Environmental media affected.- 5.3.5 Heavy metal behaviour in the environment.- 5.3.6 Toxic effects of heavy metals.- 5.3.7 Analytical methods.- 5.3.8 Examples of specific heavy metals.- 5.4 Other metals and inorganic pollutants.- 5.4.1 Aluminium.- 5.4.2 Beryllium.- 5.4.3 Fluorine.- 5.5 Radionuclides.- 5.5.1 History and nomenclature.- 5.5.2 Types of radioactive emission.- 5.5.3 Units of energy and measurement of toxicity.- 5.5.4 Radioactive potassium.- 5.5.5 Production of radionuclides by artificial means.- 5.5.6 Nuclear fission.- 5.5.7 Power generation I n nuclear reactors.- 5.5.8 Nuclear reactor types.- 5.5.9 The future of nuclear power.- 5.5.10 Observations on major accidents.- 5.5.11 Radioactive release within buildings.- 5.5.12 Social aspects of nuclear power generation.- 5.5.13 Power from thermal fusion.- 5.5.14 Cold fusion.- 5.6 Mineral fibres and particles.- 5.6.1 General aspects.- 5.6.2 Analysis.- 5.6.3 Examples of mineral pollutants.- References.- Further reading.- 6 Organic pollutants.- 6.1 Smoke.- 6.2 Methane and other hydrocarbons - coal and oil as sources.- 6.2.1 The formation of coal.- 6.2.2 Petroleum.- 6.2.3 Methane.- 6.2.4 Higher alkanes.- 6.2.5 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).- 6.3 Organic solvents.- 6.3.1 Adhesives.- 6.3.2 Coatings and inks.- 6.3.3 Aerosol sprays.- 6.3.4 Metal cleaning.- 6.3.5 Dry cleaning of clothes.- 6.3.6 Solvent toxicology.- 6.3.7 Organochlorine compounds.- 6.3.8 Detergents.- 6.3.9 Indoor pollution.- 6.4 Organohalides: pesticides, PCBs and dioxins.- 6.4.1 Historical.- 6.4.2 Organochlorine production.- 6.4.3 DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane).- 6.4.4 Lindane, hexachlorocyclohexane.- 6.4.5 Some other chlorinated pesticides.- 6.4.6 Organochlorine herbicides.- 6.4.7 Toxic effects of insecticides.- 6.4.8 Control of pesticides.- 6.4.9 Vinyl chloride and polyvinyl chloride.- 6.4.10 Polychlorobiphenyls.- 6.4.11 Toxic substances in herbicides.- 6.4.12 Metabolism of chloraromatic compounds.- 6.4.13 Disposal of organochlorine compounds.- 6.4.14 Cremation or burial.- 6.4.15 Use of decay organisms.- 6.5 Natural, organophosphorus and carbamate pesticides.- 6.5.1 Naturally occurring pesticides.- 6.5.2 Organophosphorus pesticides.- 6.5.3 Carbamate pesticides.- 6.6 Odours.- 6.6.1 Important properties of odours.- 6.6.2 Methods of odour control.- 6.6.3 Methods of odour treatment.- References.- Further reading.- Three Wastes and other Multi-Pollutant Situations.- 7 Wastes and their disposal.- 7.1 Introduction.- 7.2 Amounts of waste produced.- 7.2.1 Industrial wastes.- 7.2.2 Municipal wastes.- 7.3 Methods of disposal of municipal wastes.- 7.3.1 Landfilling.- 7.3.2 Incineration.- 7.3.3 Composting.- 7.3.4 Recycling.- 7.4 Sewage treatment.- 7.5 Hazardous wastes.- 7.5.1 The nature and amount of hazardous waste produced.- 7.5.2 Hazardous waste management.- 7.5.3 New technologies for waste disposal.- 7.6 Long-term pollution problems of abandoned landfills containinghazardous wastes.- 7.6.1 Love Canal, New York, USA.- 7.6.2 Lekkerkirk, near Rotterdam, The Netherlands.- 7.7 Tanker accidents and oil spillages at sea.- 7.8 Other multi-pollutant situations.- 7.9 Chemical time bombs.- References.- Appendix Table of units and conversions.

Geotechnical practice for waste disposal

Abstract: Part I: General principles. Introduction. Geochemistry. Contaminant transport. Hydrogeology. Part II: New disposal facilities. Landfills and impoundments. Leachate and gas generation. Clay liners. Geomembrane liners. Collection and removal systems. Water balance for landfills. Stability of landfills. Mine waste disposal. Part III: Remediation technologies. Strategies for remediation. Geophysical techniques for subsurface site characterisation. Soil exploration at contaminated sites. Vapor analysis/extraction. Vertical cutoff walls. Cover systems. Recovery well systems. Bioremediation of soils. In situ bioremediation of groundwater. Soil washing. Part IV: Monitoring. Monitoring wells. Vadose zone monitoring. Index.

Reuse and recycling -- reverse logistics opportunities /

Abstract: This book is intended to serve as a managerial guide for planning and implementing waste reduction programs. It is based on the premise that proactive management of environmental issues is becoming vital to corporate success, and that these issues are creating new roles and opportunities for logistic professionals. Examined in detail are nonhazardous waste reduction activities; reuse and recycling activities; and source reduction. The book is based on in-depth interviews with seventeen firms and several trade associations acknowledged to be leaders in waste reduction efforts. Topics discussed include adapting inbound supply chains to use more recycled goods; minimizing packaging waste; reverse distribution capabilities for taking back products and packaging; and the use of third party services for recycling, reuse, and source reduction activities. Included are two case analyses of progressive firms like E.I. Dupont Nemours and Home Depot and their waste reduction efforts.

Coupled fluid, electrical and chemical flows in soil

Abstract: Renewed study of coupled flows in soils has been stimulated by the potential uses of electrokinetics for remedying waste sites. Most suggested uses involve the movements of fluid, electricity and c...

Overview of Tritium: Characteristics, Sources, and Problems

Abstract: Tritium has certain characteristics that present unique challenges for dosimetry and health-risk assessment. For example, in the gas form, tritium can diffuse through almost any container, including those made of steel, aluminum, and plastics. In the oxide form, tritium can generally not be detected by commonly used survey instruments. In the environment, tritium can be taken up by all hydrogen-containing molecules, distributing widely on a global scale. Tritium can be incorporated into humans through respiration, ingestion, and diffusion through skin. Its harmful effects are observed only when it is incorporated into the body. Several sources contribute to the inventory of tritium in our environment. These are 1) cosmic ray interaction with atmospheric molecules; 2) nuclear reactions in the earth's crust; 3) nuclear testing in the atmosphere during the 1950s and 1960s; 4) continuous release of tritium from nuclear power plants and tritium production facilities under normal operation; 5) incidental releases from these facilities; and 6) consumer products. An important future source will be nuclear fusion facilities expected to be developed for the purpose of electricity generation. The principal health physics problems associated with tritium are 1) the determination of the parameters for risk estimation with further reduction of their uncertainties (e.g., relative biological effectiveness and dose-rate dependency); 2) risk estimation from complex exposures to tritium in gas form, tritium in oxide form, tritium surface contamination, and other tritium-contaminated forms, with or without other ionizing radiations and/or nonionizing radiations; 3) the dose contributions of elemental tritium in the lung and from its oxidized tritium in the gastrointestinal tract; 4) prevention of tritium (in oxide form) intake and enhancement of tritium (oxide form) excretion from the human body; 5) precise health effects information for low-level tritium exposure; and 6) public acceptance of tritium leakage and waste disposal from reactors and fuel reprocessing plants.

CalTOX, a multimedia total exposure model for hazardous-waste sites; Part 1, Executive summary

Abstract: CalTOX has been developed as a spreadsheet model to assist in health-risk assessments that address contaminated soils and the contamination of adjacent air, surface water, sediments, and ground water. The modeling effort includes a multimedia transport and transformation model, exposure scenario models, and efforts to quantify and reduce uncertainty in multimedia, multiple-pathway exposure models. This report provides an overview of the CalTOX model components, lists the objectives of the model, describes the philosophy under which the model was developed, identifies the chemical classes for which the model can be used, and describes critical sensitivities and uncertainties. The multimedia transport and transformation model is a dynamic model that can be used to assess time-varying concentrations of contaminants introduced initially to soil layers or for contaminants released continuously to air or water. This model assists the user in examining how chemical and landscape properties impact both the ultimate route and quantity of human contact. Multimedia, multiple pathway exposure models are used in the CalTOX model to estimate average daily potential doses within a human population in the vicinity of a hazardous substances release site. The exposure models encompass twenty-three exposure pathways. The exposure assessment process consists of relating contaminant concentrations in the multimedia model compartments to contaminant concentrations in the media with which a human population has contact (personal air, tap water, foods, household dusts soils, etc.). The average daily dose is the product of the exposure concentrations in these contact media and an intake or uptake factor that relates the concentrations to the distributions of potential dose within the population.

Hazards from pathogenic microorganisms in land-disposed sewage sludge.

Abstract: Sewage sludge is a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds of biological and mineral origin that are precipitated from wastewater and sewage during primary, secondary, and tertiary sewage treatment. Present in these sludges are significant numbers of microorganisms that include viral, bacterial, protozoan, fungal, and helminth pathogens. The treatment of sludge to reduce biochemical oxygen demand, solids content, and odor is not always effective in reducing numbers of pathogens. This becomes a public health concern because the infectious dose for some of these pathogens may be as low as 1 particle (virus) to 50 organisms (Giardia). When sludge is applied to land for agricultural use and landfill compost, these pathogens can survive from days (bacteria) to months (viruses) to years (helminth eggs), depending on environmental conditions. Shallow aquifers can become contaminated with pathogens from sludge and, depending on groundwater flow, these organisms may travel significant distances from the disposal site. Communities that rely on groundwater for domestic use can become exposed to these pathogens, leading to a potential disease outbreak. Currently, methods to determine the risk of disease from pathogens in land-disposed sludge are inadequate because the sensitivity of pathogen detection is poor. The application of recombinant DNA technology (gene probes and polymerase chain reaction) to environmental samples may provide increased sensitivity for detecting specific pathogens in land-disposed sludge and greatly improved risk assessment models for our exposure to these sources of pathogens.

ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITING Sociological Edge Effects: Spatial Distribution of Human Impact in Suburban Forest Fragments

Abstract: Suburban forest fragments often experience heavy recreational and waste disposal use, with considerable damage to the vegetation. To suggest strategies for conservation of the forest flora, spatial distributions of human impact were described in 40 fragmentary stands in northern New Castle County, Delaware. The distribution of human impact showed a significant bias to the forest edge, with 95% of localized damage occurring in the first 82 m. Forms of impact related to lawn maintenance fell significantly closer to the edge than impacts related to recreation and showed the strongest edge orientation. Edge distances of campsites, vandalized trees, and firewood gathering were negatively correlated with distance to the nearest graded road, indicating the importance of road access. Several forms of impact were also clustered near footpaths, although distance to paths was independent of edge distance in all cases. In terms of penetration of the forest and severity of damage, human impact greatly exceeds natural edge effects reported for this community. These findings suggest that damage may be minimized by limiting road access and avoiding the creation of small forest fragments. In large areas of the eastern United States tile na- tive deciduous forest has been severely fragmented by human activity. In the piedmont zone of northern Delaware these fragments preserve a rich herb and shrub flora, but they increasingly also serve the needs of nearby residents. If a fragment is situated near a large housing development, heavy use may lead to radical changes in both the structure and composition of the forest flora (Hoehne 1981). Human activity is not randomly distributed within fragments, however. An understanding of patterns of use may allow pro- tection of biological diversity in a mixed-use forest. This article describes the spatial distribution of hu- man impact relative to such easily recognizable land- scape elements as paths, roads, houses, and the forest edge. The impact of human traffic in forest ecosystems is best known from studies of large wilderness areas, but the findings can be generalized to suburban forest fragments. At the most intensive levels of use, all for- est floor vegetation is lost. Trampling strips away leaf litter and humus and causes soil compaction in the top 5-15 cm, changing the drainage and nutrient ex- change properties of the site (Kuss 1986, Cole 1987,

Sociological edge effects: Spatial distribution of human impact in suburban forest fragments

Abstract: Suburban forest fragments often experience heavy recreational and waste disposal use, with considerable damage to the vegetation. To suggest strategies for conservation of the forest flora, spatial distributions of human impact were described in 40 fragmentary stands in northern New Castle County, Delaware. The distribution of human impact showed a significant bias to the forest edge, with 95% of localized damage occurring in the first 82 m. Forms of impact related to lawn maintenance fell significantly closer to the edge than impacts related to recreation and showed the strongest edge orientation. Edge distances of campsites, vandalized trees, and firewood gathering were negatively correlated with distance to the nearest graded road, indicating the importance of road access. Several forms of impact were also clustered near footpaths, although distance to paths was independent of edge distance in all cases. In terms of penetration of the forest and severity of damage, human impact greatly exceeds natural edge effects reported for this community. These findings suggest that damage may be minimized by limiting road access and avoiding the creation of small forest fragments.

Hydrology: An environmental approach

Abstract: Introduction to Hydrology: Introduction and Overview: Recent and Traditional Trends. Hydrologic Perspective. Hydrology. Applied Hydrology. Hydrology and the Student. Professional Responsibility. Cost-Effective Practice. Box 1-1 Ultimate Heat Sink Design. Fundamental Concepts: The Hydrologic Cycle and Ground-Water Flow: Concept 1 The Hydrological Cycle, A Global Model for Practice. A Model for Practice. A Broader Perspective. Cycle Description. Holistic Planning. Concept 2 Water Flow Through Aquifers, A Case of Following the Path of Least Resistance. Aquifers. Ground-Water Flow. Applications to Practice. Fundamental Concepts: Geologic Materials and Effective Stress. Concept 3 Geology and Geologic History, A Critical Control on Hydrogeologic Properties. Description of materials. Geologic History. A Perspective. Concept 4 The Theory of Effective Stress, Impacts of Pore Water Pressure. A Misconception. Increase in Pore Pressure. Statement. Analogy. Applications to Design. An Important Case-History Lesson. Box 3-1 Hydrogeologic Properties and Geologic History. Box 3-2 Particle-Size Gradation. Worked Example 3-1 Particle-Size Gradation: Granular Soils. Ground-Water Flow: Darcy's Law: Box 4-1 Hydraulic Gradient of Unity. Box 4-2 The Terms "Permeability" and "Hydraulic Conductivity". Darcy's Law. Applications of Darcy's Law: Seepage Forces and Piping. Darcy's Law in Terms of Discharge. Darcy's Law in Terms of Pressure Head and Elevation Head. Box 4-3 Piezometers and Manometers. Darcy's Velocity and Seepage Velocity. Validity of Darcy's Law: Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow. Permeability Determinations. Worked Example 4-1 Laboratory Determination of Permeability. Classification of Soils. Classification of Rock. Box 4-4 Bernoulli Equation for Fluid Potential. Flow Nets to Predict Seepage: Assumptions. Sketching a Flow New. Interpreting a Flow Net. Calculations for Seepage Loss. Worked Example 5-1 Computing Seepage Loss from Dams. Flow through Stratified Soils: Hydrogeologic Assessment. Tangent Rule. Plan-View Flow Nets. Worked Example 5-2 The Use of Plan-View Nets to Compute Seepage Loss. Waste Impoundments and Landfills. Flow Nets for Surface-Water Flow. Seepage through Earthwork Impoundments. Box 5-1 Constructing an Accurate Phreatic Line through an Earthwork Impoundment. Seepage Forces and Design: Piping. Worked Example 6-1 Design Against Piping Failure by the Critical-Gradient Method. Worked Example 6-2 Effective-Stress Method. Worked Example 6-3 Creep-Ratio Method. Uplift Pressure. Worked Example 6-4 Design Against Uplift Pressure. Liquefaction. Design of Filters and Drains. Ground-Water Contamination and Cleanup: Ground-Water Quality and Contamination: Terminolgy. Water as a Solvent. Factors Influencing Water Quality. Geochemistry. Water Quality and Usability: Industrial Use. Drinking Water and Health. Contaminant Levels. Contamination Mechanics. Attenuation. Some Common Contaminants. Animal-Borne Diseases. Aquifer and Flow-Net Modeling: Box 8-1 Hydrologic Models. Hydrogeologic Model. Hydrological and Chemical Properties of Waste. Flow-Net Model. Unsaturated-Flow Model. Worked Example 8-1 Aquifer and Flow-Net Modeling. Prediction of Solute Transport and Attenuation: Hydrogeologic Criteria for Waste Disposal Sites. Flow Nets. Solute Attenuation. Predicting Solute Attenuation. Box 9-1 General Equation for Solute Transport. Worked Example 9-1 Chemical Mass Transport Equation. Ground Water Protection and Cleanup: Regulation and Beyond. Box 10-1 Underground Storage Tanks: Some Regulations in the United States. Protection Strategy: Classification of Ground Water. Wellhead Protection Strategy. Box 10-2 Wellhead Protection Strategy: A Case Study. Environmental Assessment. Contamination Assessment. Cleanup Technology: Plume Control. Ground-Water Cleanup. Alternative Cleanup Techniques. Cleanup of the Unsaturated Zone. Box 10-2 Salt-Water Intrusion: Planning Strategy. Waste Disposal and the Environment: Waste Disposal: An Historical Perspective. Recent Trends in Waste Disposal. Waste Disposal: First-Principle Considerations. Municipal Waste Disposal. Box 11-1 Refuse-To-Energy Plants. Hazardous Waste Disposal. Low-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal. High-Level Nuclear Waste Disposal. Ground-Water Applications to Civil Engineering Design: Foundation Stabilization and Construction Dewatering: History. Soil Stabilization. Waterproofing/Grouting. Construction Dewatering. Flow-Net Method: Design of Dewatering Systems. Worked Example 12-1 Estimate of Well-Point Pumping Rates: Excavation Dewatering by the Flow-Net Method. Well-Equation Method: Design of Dewatering Systems. Worked Example 12-2 Excavation Dewatering: Estimated Pumping Rate by the Well-Equation Method. Dewatering: Cutoffs, Supports, and Cofferdams. Hydrologic Aspects of Compaction and Slope Stability: Box 13-1 Measuring Compaction: Dry Density and Relative Density. Worked Example 13-1 Calculations for Dry Density and Relative Compaction. Hydrogeologic Aspects of Slope Stability. Well Hydraulics: Introduction to Well Theory: Aquifer Properties for Well-Impact Prediction. Worked Example 14-1 Use of Storativity to Predict Impacts on Aquifer Storage. Supporting Discussion on Storativity. Supporting parameters for Storativity. Compressibility of Water. Theis Equations for Analyzing Pumping-Test Data. Worked Example 14-2 Use of Transmissivity and Storativity to Predict Impacts of Pumping on an Aquifer. Analysis of Pumping-Test Data: Confined Aquifers: Theis Method. Worked Example 15-1 Theis Method. Cooper and Jacob (Straight-Line) Method. Box 15-1 Cooper and Jacob Approximation to the Theis Equation. Worked Example 15-2 Cooper and Jacob Method. Distance-Drawdown Method. Worked Example 15-3 Distance-Drawdown Method. Analysis of Pumping-Test Data: Unconfined Aquifers: Theis and Modified Solutions. Worked Example 16-1 Jacob Correction. Steady-State Radial Flow Method. Worked Example 16-2 Estimation of Well Yield Using an Equilibrium Well Equation. Multiple Type Curves for Unconfined Aquifers. Worked Example 16-3 Multiple Type-Curve Analysis for an Unconfined Aquifer. Analysis of Pumping-Test Data: Leaky-Confined Aquifers and Slug Tests: Leaky Confined Aquifers (no storage in the confining layer). Worked Example 17-1 Curve-Matching Method. Worked Example 17-2 Prediction of Size of a Cone of Depression in a Leaky-Confined Aquifer. Leaky Confined Aquifer (with storage in the confining layer). Slug Tests. Hvorslev Slug-Test Method. Worked Example 17-3 Hvorslev Slug-Test Method. Slug Test: Curve-Matching Method. Worked Example 17-4 Slug Test Analysis: Curve-Matching Method. Design of Field Pumping Tests: Pumping Test Preparations: Phase 1. Worked Example 18-1 Location of a Pumping-Test Observation Well. Pumping Test Preparations: Phase 2. Running a Pumping Test. Real-World Aquifers. Aquifer Boundaries and Image Wells. Aquifer Boundaries and Design. Packer Tests. Worked Example 18-2 Double Packer Test in Saturated Rock. Box 18-1 Case History: Field Investigations for a Proposed Well Field-Deep Wells in Rock. Surface Water: Atmospheric Aspects of the Hydrologic Cycle: Weather and Climate. Box 19-1 The Panama Canal: Deforestation and Water Shortage. Evaporation. Worked Example 19-1 Nomograph for Determining Evaporation from Shallow Lakes. Transpiration and Evaporation. Evapotranspiration. Worked Example 19-2 Thornthwaite's Equation for Estimating Potential Evapotranspiration. Precipitation and Runoff: Conditions for Precipitation Occurrence. Forms of Precipitation. Average Basin Precipitation. Worked Example 20-1 Theisson Polygon Method. Worked Example 20-2 Arithmetic Mean Method. Rainfall and Runoff. Streamflow: Interaction of Surface Water and Ground Water. Measurement of Streamflow. Worked Example 21-1 Francis Equation for Calculating Discharge through a Rectangular Weir. Worked Example 21-2 Flow Using a Parshall Flume. Worked Example 21-3 Use of the Manning Equation. Hydrographs. Worked Example 21-4 Separation of a Storm Hydrograph: Runoff and Baseflow. Worked Example 21-5 Use of the Baseflow Recession Equation. Flood Analysis: Prediction of Flood Frequency. Worked Example 22-1 Flood Frequency. Prediction of Flow Duration. Worked Example 22-2 Flow Duration. Flood Routing. Worked Example 22-3 Storage Routing Predictions. Flood Control: Dams. Levees. Channelization. Modern Flood-Control Practice. Some General Aspects of Hydrology: Hydrologic Regions: Classification of Hydrologic Regions. Western Mountain Ranges. Alluvial Basins. Box 24-1 Eutrophication of Lake Tahoe. Columbia Lava Plateau. Colorado Plateau and Wyoming Basin. High Plains. Nonglaciated Central Region. Glaciated Central Region. Peidmont Blue Ridge Region. Northeast and Superior Uplands. Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain. Southeast Coastal Plain. Alluvial Valleys. Hawaiian Islands. Alaska. Box 21-2 Cold-Region Phenomena (Glaciers, Ice Dams, Permafrost, Pingos and Ice Wedges). Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Hydrology and Field Practice: Site Selection. Site Investigation. Box 25-1 Satellite Images and Air Photographs. Box 25-2 Drilling (drilling rigs and components). Borehole Logs. Exploration Adits. Water Well Design. Other Field Activities. Box 25-3 Site Investigation Case History: Volatile Organic Compounds. Hydrology and Computer Methods: Hydrologic Models. Philosophical Approach to Hydrologic Modeling. Distributed-Parameter Models. Existing Ground-Water Computer Models. Computer Model Data Base. Computer Model Calibration. Appendices: Water Chemistry. Water Law. Conversion Factors and Index Properties. References. Index.

Quality Assurance in Tropical Fruit Processing

Abstract: The processing of fruit and fruit juices is an important international branch of the food industry. Many fruit processing plants are situated in the topics or subtropics, or they process fruit or fruit products from these areas. Tropical and subtropical climates provide ideal conditions for the rapid growth of microorganisms and for chemical reactions. Most of these reactions are detrimental to the overall quality of fruit and fruit products. This manual presents both the classical laboratory methods of chemical, physical, microbiological and organoleptical methods of analysis and the modern, sophisticated but rapid procedures of testing and analyzing. Special attention is given to economical, rapid methods which are readily available and easy to use in tropical climates.

Perceptions of Nuclear and Other Risks in Japan and the United States

Abstract: As part of a study of nuclear power development in Japan and the United States, surveys of perceptions of risk toward 30 activities, substances, and technologies have been carried out in the Pacific Northwest and Tokyo, Japan. The results show that people in both countries have the highest level of dread toward nuclear waste disposal, nuclear accidents, and nuclear war, greater even than their dread of crime and AIDS. In addition to comparisons of dread, the paper also discusses similarities and differences between Japanese and American responses for other dimensions of risk perception.

Nondestructive determination of trace element speciation in coal and coal ash by XAFS spectroscopy

Abstract: The environmental impact of specific trace element species in coal utilization and waste disposal depends not only on the abundance but also on the form(s) of occurrence of the element present in coal and coal ash. While there are a number of analytical methods for determining the abundance of trace elements in coal and ash, there are very few methods available for determining the form of occurrence (speciation) of a trace element in such materials at abundances as low as 10 ppm. In this report, the potential of XAFS spectroscopy for trace element speciation is demonstrated by means of measurements on two environmentally important trace elements, arsenic and chromium, in coal and ash

Applicability of Repassivation Potential for Long-Term Prediction of Localized Corrosion of Alloy 825 and Type 316L Stainless Steel

Abstract: Repassivation potential (Erp) was investigated for use as a parameter in the long-term prediction of pitting resistance of two Fe-Ni-Cr-Mo alloys that are candidate materials for high-level nuclear waste containers. This potential was found to be independent of the extent of prior pit growth for alloy 825 (UNS N08825) and type 316L (UNS S31603) stainless steel (SS). Repassivation potential decreased by an increase in backward scan rate after pits were grown under potentiostatic conditions. This was related to the effect of potential on repassivation time. The corrosion potential (Ecorr) in simulated pit-crevice solutions increased with a decrease in pH and was independent of chloride (Cl−) concentration even to the point of depassivation. The depassivation pH (pHD) was independent of Cl− concentration and increased slightly with an increase in temperature. The relationship between repassivation potential and Ecorr in simulated pit solutions was discussed. It was hypothesized that the repassivatio...

Hydrogeology of Formation Waters, Northeastern Alberta Basin

Abstract: The hydrogeological study of formation waters in the northeastern part of the Alberta basin (defined as the area from 55 to 58°N and from 110 to 114°W) is based on information from 12,475 wells, 3187 formation-water analyses, 2531 drill-stem tests, and 452,030 core-plug analyses. Because the study area, covering approximately 76,000 km2, is located at the feather edge of the basin, local topography and physiographic features, particularly the Athabasca River system, exert a strong influence on the flow of formation waters in most of the aquifers. Generally, temperature seems to be the main controlling factor on salinity distributions. The salinity of formation waters increases in the vicinity of evaporitic beds, and decreases close to the surface beca se of mixing with fresh meteoric water introduced through local flow systems. The Lower and Middle Devonian pre-Prairie aquifer systems, beneath the regionally extensive Prairie aquiclude, are characterized by regional topographically-driven flow updip to the northeast. This updip flow is opposed by buoyancy forces caused by salinity increase with temperature downdip to the southwest. The post-Prairie Devonian aquifers are characterized by transitional flow regimes. Because of erosion at the sub-Cretaceous unconformity and outcrop at the Athabasca River, local physiographic influences are superimposed on basin-scale regional flow in these aquifers. Hydraulic communication between the Beaverhill Lake-Cooking Lake and Grosmont aquifers is inferred in places caused by Cooking Lake reefs penetrating the intervening shales of the Lower Ireton aquitard. Finally, the retaceous aquifers all can be described as having local flow regime characteristics with no buoyancy effects as a result of recharge in topographically high areas and discharge in low regions along the valleys of the Athabasca River system. The flow of formation waters in northeastern Alberta played an important role in the formation of the huge Athabasca oil sands deposits. Hydrocarbons that migrated into the area from the west were trapped into local reservoirs, and biodegraded and washed by fresh meteoric water introduced by local flow systems. Environmentally, the subsurface hydrogeology in the area imposes specific constraints on waste disposal in deep formations mostly because of the absence of a thick, continuous regional aquitard and because most aquifers subcrop at shallow depth or crop out and discharge along the valleys of the Athabasca River system and at the basin edge.

The role and significance of woody biomass plantations in Swedish agriculture

Abstract: The low profitability of agriculture, the greenhouse effect, acidification, the energy supply, ground water pollution, waste disposal and depopulation of the countryside are some of the problems in urgent need of solution not only in Sweden but in many other western countries. Naturally, there is no single solution to all these complex problems. However, by establishing plantations of fast-growing deciduous tree species on abandoned or surplus arable land it is possible to address many of these problems in a positive way. More than 15 years of research and development within the National Swedish Energy Forestry Program (NSEFP) have resulted in a new agricultural crop with a high potential for sound ecological and economic outcome. The further utilization of biomass plantations for environmental clean-up programmes and waste cycling is now developing on a regional and local basis. As a complement to pure energy plantations, mixed forest stands are discussed as multipurpose production systems for wood chips...

The worth of data in predicting aquitard continuity in hydrogeological design

Abstract: A Bayesian decision framework is developed for addressing questions of hydrogeological data worth associated with engineering design at sites in heterogeneous geological environments The specific case investigated is one of remedial contaminant containment in an aquifer underlain by an aquitard of uncertain continuity The framework is used to evaluate the worth of hard and soft data in investigating the aquitard's continuity The analysis consists of four modules: (1) an aquitard realization generator based on indicator kriging, (2) a procedure for the Bayesian updating of the uncertainty with respect to aquitard windows, (3) a Monte Carlo simulation model for advective contaminant transport, and (4) an economic decision model A sensitivity analysis for a generic design example involving a design decision between a no-action alternative and a containment alternative indicates that the data worth of a single borehole providing a hard point datum was more sensitive to economic parameters than to hydrogeological or geostatistical parameters For this case, data worth is very sensitive to the projected cost of containment, the discount rate, and the estimated cost of failure When it comes to hydrogeological parameters, such as the representative hydraulic conductivity of the aquitard or underlying aquifer, the sensitivity analysis indicates that it is more important to know whether the field value is above or below some threshold value than it is to know its actual numerical value A good conceptual understanding of the site geology is important in estimating prior uncertainties The framework was applied in a retrospective fashion to the design of a remediation program for soil contaminated by radioactive waste disposal at the Savannah River site in South Carolina The cost-effectiveness of different patterns of boreholes was studied A contour map is presented for the net expected value of sample information (EVSI) for a single borehole The net EVSI of patterns of precise point measurements is also compared to that of an imprecise seismic survey

Minds for the Future

Abstract: Successful long-term implementation of the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management's (OCRWM) program depends on its ability to recruit qualified individuals educated and trained in science and engineering fields. It has become increasingly necessary to ensure that a resource pool of highly skilled scientists, engineers, and technicians is available now and in the future. OCRWM's Education and Information Division has developed a new curriculum for middle and secondary school students that is designed to encourage their interest in issues related to the use of nuclear power and waste disposal, and in the pursuit of science and math courses required to study these areas.

Risk, Uncertainty in Risk, and the EPA Release Limits for Radioactive Waste Disposal

Abstract: A conceptual model for the organization and execution of a performance assessment of a radioactive waste disposal site, including uncertainty and sensitivity analysis, is described. This model is based on a formal definition of risk as a collection of ordered triples, where the first element in each triple is a set of similar occurrences, the second element is the probability or frequency of the first element, and the third element is a vector of consequences associated with the first element. This division of risk into its three constituent parts provides a useful model for the structure of a performance assessment for several reasons. First, it provides a clear distinction between the major parts of a performance assessment. Second, it provides a way to distinguish between different types of uncertainty, including completeness, aggregation, model selection, imprecisely known variables, and stochastic variation. Third, it leads naturally to the representation of stochastic variation with a complementary cumulative distribution function (CCDF) and the representation of state of knowledge uncertainty with a family or distribution of CCDFs. Fourth, it provides a context in which the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency limits for radioactive releases to the accessible environment can be represented and calculated. The preceding ideasmore » are illustrated with results obtained in a preliminary performance assessment for the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in southeastern New Mexico.« less

Environmental Impacts of Waste Paper Recycling

Abstract: Public concern for the conservation of natural resources and a general awareness of the environmental consequences of waste disposal is reflected in current legislation aimed at reducing waste. Recycling is commonly cited as one of the preferred methods of waste reduction and this book summarizes a recent study of paper recycling in Europe, which investigated the entire production and disposal process using a life-cycle methodology. The results of the study underline the economic and environmental advantages of paper recycling, but more controversially, they also show how, under certain conditions, the renewable character and the high energy content of paper seem to make energy recovery more attractive than recycling.