A general model is introduced which is capable of making accurate, quantitative predictions about the phase noise of different types of electrical oscillators by acknowledging the true periodically time-varying nature of all oscillators. This new approach also elucidates several previously unknown design criteria for reducing close-in phase noise by identifying the mechanisms by which intrinsic device noise and external noise sources contribute to the total phase noise. In particular, it explains the details of how 1/f noise in a device upconverts into close-in phase noise and identifies methods to suppress this upconversion. The theory also naturally accommodates cyclostationary noise sources, leading to additional important design insights. The model reduces to previously available phase noise models as special cases. Excellent agreement among theory, simulations, and measurements is observed.

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A general theory of phase noise in electrical oscillators

We present several new simple and accurate expressions for the DC inductance of square, hexagonal, octagonal, and circular spiral inductors. We evaluate the accuracy of our expressions, as well as several previously published inductance expressions, in two ways: by comparison with three-dimensional field solver predictions and by comparison with our own measurements, and also previously published measurements. Our simple expression matches the field solver inductance values typically within around 3%, about an order of magnitude better than the previously published expressions, which have typical errors ground 20% (or more). Comparison with measured values gives similar results: our expressions (and, indeed, the field solver results) match within around 5%, compared to errors of around 20% for the previously published expressions. (We believe most of the additional errors in the comparison to published measured values is due to the variety of experimental conditions under which the inductance was measured.) Our simple expressions are accurate enough for design and optimization of inductors or of circuits incorporating inductors. Indeed, since inductor tolerance is typically on the order of several percent, "more accurate" expressions are not really needed in practice.

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Simple accurate expressions for planar spiral inductances

International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors 2003の要求清浄度について － シリコンウエハ表面と雰囲気環境に要求される清浄度, 分析方法の現状について －

Energy efficiency in cellular networks is a growing concern for cellular operators to not only maintain profitability, but also to reduce the overall environment effects. This emerging trend of achieving energy efficiency in cellular networks is motivating the standardization authorities and network operators to continuously explore future technologies in order to bring improvements in the entire network infrastructure. In this article, we present a brief survey of methods to improve the power efficiency of cellular networks, explore some research issues and challenges and suggest some techniques to enable an energy efficient or "green" cellular network. Since base stations consume a maximum portion of the total energy used in a cellular system, we will first provide a comprehensive survey on techniques to obtain energy savings in base stations. Next, we discuss how heterogenous network deployment based on micro, pico and femtocells can be used to achieve this goal. Since cognitive radio and cooperative relaying are undisputed future technologies in this regard, we propose a research vision to make these technologies more energy efficient. Lastly, we explore some broader perspectives in realizing a "green" cellular network technology.

Green Cellular Networks: A Survey, Some Research Issues and Challenges

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Design Of Analog Cmos Integrated Circuits

A completely integrated 1.8-GHz low-phase-noise voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) has been realized in a standard silicon digital CMOS process. The design relies heavily on the integrated spiral inductors which have been realized with only two metal layers and without etching. The effects of high-frequency magnetic fields and losses in the heavily doped substrate have been simulated and modeled with finite-element analysis. The achieved phase noise is as low as -116 dBc/Hz at an offset frequency of 600 kHz, at a power consumption of only 6 mW. The VCO is tuned with standard available junction capacitances, resulting in a 250-MHz tuning range.

/pdf/a-1-8-ghz-low-phase-noise-cmos-vco-using-optimized-hollow-37rl9hcum8.pdf

A 1.8-GHz low-phase-noise CMOS VCO using optimized hollow spiral inductors

A prototype frequency synthesizer for the DCS-1800 system has been integrated in a standard 0.4 /spl mu/m CMOS process without any external components. A completely monolithic design has been made feasible by using an optimized hollow-coil inductor low-phase-noise voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO). The frequency divider is an eight-modulus phase-switching prescaler that achieves the same speed as asynchronous dividers. The die area was minimized by using a dual-path active loop filter. An indirect linearization technique was implemented for the VCO gain. The resulting architecture is a fourth-order, type-2 charge-pump phase-locked loop. The measured settling time is 300 /spl mu/s, and the phase noise is up to -123 dBc/Hz at 600 kHz and -138 dBc/Hz at 3 MHz offset.

A fully integrated CMOS DCS-1800 frequency synthesizer

A dual-modulus divide-by-128/129 prescaler has been developed in a 0.7-/spl mu/m CMOS technology. A new circuit technique enables the limitation of the high-speed section of the prescaler to only one divide-by-two flipflop. In that way, a dual-modulus prescaler with the same speed as an asynchronous divider can be obtained. The measured maximum input frequency of the prescaler is up to 2.65 GHz at 5 V power supply voltage. Running at a power supply of 3 V, the circuit consumes 8 mA at a minimum input frequency of 1.75 GHz.

A 1.75-GHz/3-V dual-modulus divide-by-128/129 prescaler in 0.7-/spl mu/m CMOS

The implementation of the two high-frequency building blocks for a low-phase-noise 1.8-GHz frequency-synthesizing PLL in a standard 0.7-/spl mu/m CMOS process is discussed. The VCO uses on-chip bondwires, instead of spiral inductors, for low noise and low power. The design of these bondwire inductors is discussed in great detail. A general formula for the theoretical limit of the phase noise of LC-tuned oscillators is presented. The design of a special LC-tank allows a trade-off between noise and power. The realized VCO has a phase noise of -115 dBc/Hz at 200 kHz from the 1.8-GHz carrier and consumes 8 mA from a 3-V supply. The prescaler has a fixed division ratio of 128 and uses an enhanced ECL-alike high-frequency D-flipflop. Its power consumption is 28 mW.

A 1.8-GHz CMOS low-phase-noise voltage-controlled oscillator with prescaler

A fully dynamic SAR ADC is proposed that uses passive charge-sharing and an asynchronous controller to achieve low power consumption. No active circuits are needed for high-speed operation and all static power is removed, offering power consumption proportional to sampling frequency from 50MS/s down to 0. The prototype implementation in 90nm digital CMOS achieves 7.8 ENOB, 49dB SNDR at 20MS/s consuming 290 muW. This results in a FOM of 65fJ/conversion-step.

Jan Craninckx

Papers

A 1.8-GHz low-phase-noise CMOS VCO using optimized hollow spiral inductors

A fully integrated CMOS DCS-1800 frequency synthesizer

A 1.75-GHz/3-V dual-modulus divide-by-128/129 prescaler in 0.7-/spl mu/m CMOS

A 1.8-GHz CMOS low-phase-noise voltage-controlled oscillator with prescaler

A 65fJ/Conversion-Step 0-to-50MS/s 0-to-0.7mW 9b Charge-Sharing SAR ADC in 90nm Digital CMOS