In the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis, caspase activation is closely linked to mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP). Numerous pro-apoptotic signal-transducing molecules and pathological stimuli converge on mitochondria to induce MOMP. The local regulation and execution of MOMP involve proteins from the Bcl-2 family, mitochondrial lipids, proteins that regulate bioenergetic metabolite flux, and putative components of the permeability transition pore. MOMP is lethal because it results in the release of caspase-activating molecules and caspase-independent death effectors, metabolic failure in the mitochondria, or both. Drugs designed to suppress excessive MOMP may avoid pathological cell death, and the therapeutic induction of MOMP may restore apoptosis in cancer cells in which it is disabled. The general rules governing the pathophysiology of MOMP and controversial issues regarding its regulation are discussed.

The Pathophysiology of Mitochondrial Cell Death

Selective degradation of mitochondria by mitophagy.

The cellular stress response is a universal mechanism of extraordinary physiological/pathophysiological significance. It represents a defense reaction of cells to damage that environmental forces inflict on macromolecules. Many aspects of the cellular stress response are not stressor specific because cells monitor stress based on macromolecular damage without regard to the type of stress that causes such damage. Cellular mechanisms activated by DNA damage and protein damage are interconnected and share common elements. Other cellular responses directed at re-establishing homeostasis are stressor specific and often activated in parallel to the cellular stress response. All organisms have stress proteins, and universally conserved stress proteins can be regarded as the minimal stress proteome. Functional analysis of the minimal stress proteome yields information about key aspects of the cellular stress response, including physiological mechanisms of sensing membrane lipid, protein, and DNA damage; redox sensing and regulation; cell cycle control; macromolecular stabilization/repair; and control of energy metabolism. In addition, cells can quantify stress and activate a death program (apoptosis) when tolerance limits are exceeded.

Molecular and evolutionary basis of the cellular stress response

Monoamine oxidase inhibitors were among the first antidepressants to be discovered and have long been used as such. It now seems that many of these agents might have therapeutic value in several common neurodegenerative conditions, independently of their inhibition of monoamine oxidase activity. However, many claims and some counter-claims have been made about the physiological importance of these enzymes and the potential of their inhibitors. We evaluate these arguments in the light of what we know, and still have to learn, of the structure, function and genetics of the monoamine oxidases and the disparate actions of their inhibitors.

The therapeutic potential of monoamine oxidase inhibitors.

A stereotaxic atlas of the rat brain

Cyclosporin A (CsA) shows cytoprotective properties in many cellular and in vivo models that may depend on interference of the interaction of cyclophilin A with calcineurin or of cyclophilin D with the mitochondrial permeability transition (PT) pore. The nonimmunosuppressive cyclosporin derivative N-methyl-4-valine-cyclosporin (PKF220-384) inhibits the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) like CsA but without calcineurin inactivation. PKF220-384 has been used to discriminate between PT pore- and calcineurin mediated effects but is no longer available. Here, we evaluated the effects of another nonimmunosuppressive cyclosporin derivative, N-methyl-4-isoleucine-cyclosporin (NIM811) on the MPT. Using two newly developed microtiter plate assays, one measuring mitochondrial swelling from absorbance and the other measuring mitochondrial membrane potential from changes in safranin fluorescence, we show that NIM811 blocks the MPT induced by calcium and inorganic phosphate, alone or in combination with the dopaminergic neurotoxin 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine, the complex I inhibitor rotenone, and the prooxidant t-butylhydroperoxide. NIM811 was equipotent to CsA and half as potent as PKF220-384. Additionally, we show that NIM811 blocks cell killing and prevents in situ mitochondrial inner membrane permeabilization and depolarization during tumor necrosis factor-alpha-induced apoptosis to cultured rat hepatocytes. NIM811 inhibition of apoptosis was equipotent with CsA except at higher concentrations: CsA lost efficacy but NIM 811 did not. We conclude that NIM811 is a useful alternative to PKF220-384 to investigate the role of the mitochondrial permeability transition in apoptotic and necrotic cell death.

Inhibition of the mitochondrial permeability transition by the nonimmunosuppressive cyclosporin derivative NIM811.

https://www.jbc.org/content/273/10/5821.full.pdf

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the putative target of the antiapoptotic compounds CGP 3466 and R-(-)-deprenyl.

The mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) plays an important role in damage-induced cell death, and agents inhibiting the MPT may have a therapeutic potential for treating human conditions such as ischemia/reperfusion injury, trauma, and neurodegenerative diseases. The mitochondrial matrix protein, cyclophilin D (CYP D), a member of a family of highly homologous peptidylprolyl cis-trans isomerases (PPIases), plays a decisive role in MPT, being an integral constituent of the MPT pore. Other putative MPT pore proteins include the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT) and the voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC). In an alternative model, the MPT pore is formed by clusters of misfolded membrane proteins outlining aqueous channels that are regulated by CYP D and other chaperone-like proteins. Like cyclophilin A (CYP A) and other cyclophilin family members, CYP D is targeted by the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A (CsA). CsA is cytoprotective in many cellular and animal models, but protection may result from either inhibition of the MPT through an interaction with CYP D or inhibition of calcineurin-mediated dephosphorylation of BAD through an interaction with CYP A. The relevance of MPT inhibition by CsA for its cytoprotective effects is well documented in many cellular models. Mechanisms of action in vivo are more difficult to define, and accordingly the evidence is as yet less compelling in in vivo animal models of ischemia/reperfusion injury, trauma and neurodegenerative diseases. Notwithstanding, CYP D is a drug target of high interest. Structural considerations suggest feasibility of designing CYP D ligands without immunosuppressant properties. This is highly desirable, since they have the potential of being useful therapeutic agents in a variety of disease states. It might be a tougher challenge to obtain compounds specific for CYP D vs. other cyclophilins, and/or of small molecular weight, allowing brain penetration to make them suitable for treating neurodegenerative diseases.

Cyclophilin D as a drug target.

gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB), a metabolite of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), is proposed to function as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator. gamma-Hydroxybutyrate and its prodrug, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), recently received increased public attention as they emerged as popular drugs of abuse. The actions of GHB/GBL are believed to be mediated by GABAB and/or specific GHB receptors, the latter corresponding to high-affinity [3H]GHB-binding sites coupled to G-proteins. To investigate the contribution of GABAB receptors to GHB actions we studied the effects of GHB in GABAB(1)-/- mice, which lack functional GABAB receptors. Autoradiography reveals a similar spatial distribution of [3H]GHB-binding sites in brains of GABAB(1)-/- and wild-type mice. The maximal number of binding sites and the KD values for the putative GHB antagonist [3H]6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-5-hydroxy-5H-benzocyclohept-6-ylidene acetic acid (NCS-382) appear unchanged in GABAB(1)-/- compared with wild-type mice, demonstrating that GHB- are distinct from GABAB-binding sites. In the presence of the GABAB receptor positive modulator 2,6-di-tert-butyl-4-(3-hydroxy-2,2-dimethyl-propyl)-phenol GHB induced functional GTPgamma[35S] responses in brain membrane preparations from wild-type but not GABAB(1)-/- mice. The GTPgamma[35S] responses in wild-type mice were blocked by the GABAB antagonist [3-[[1-(S)-(3,4dichlorophenyl)ethyl]amino]-2-(S)-hydroxy-propyl]-cyclohexylmethyl phosphinic acid hydrochloride (CGP54626) but not by NCS-382. Altogether, these findings suggest that the GHB-induced GTPgamma[35S] responses are mediated by GABAB receptors. Following GHB or GBL application, GABAB(1)-/- mice showed neither the hypolocomotion, hypothermia, increase in striatal dopamine synthesis nor electroencephalogram delta-wave induction seen in wild-type mice. It, therefore, appears that all studied GHB effects are GABAB receptor dependent. The molecular nature and the signalling properties of the specific [3H]GHB-binding

Peter C. Waldmeier

Papers

Inhibition of the mitochondrial permeability transition by the nonimmunosuppressive cyclosporin derivative NIM811.

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, the putative target of the antiapoptotic compounds CGP 3466 and R-(-)-deprenyl.

Cyclophilin D as a drug target.

Specific γ-hydroxybutyrate-binding sites but loss of pharmacological effects of γ-hydroxybutyrate in GABAB(1)-deficient mice

Serotonin-dopamine interactions in the nigrostriatal system